report [rɪˈpɔːt]
n
1. an account prepared for the benefit of others, esp one that provides information obtained through investigation and published in a newspaper or broadcast
2. a statement made widely known; rumour according to report, he is not dead
3. an account of the deliberations of a committee, body, etc. a report of parliamentary proceedings
4. (Social Science / Education) Brit a statement on the progress, academic achievement, etc., of each child in a school, written by teachers and sent to the parents or guardian annually or each term
5. (Law) a written account of a case decided at law, giving the main points of the argument on each side, the court's findings, and the decision reached
6. comment on a person's character or actions; reputation he is of good report here
7. a sharp loud noise, esp one made by a gun
vb (when tr, may take a clause as object; when intr, often foll by on)
1. to give an account (of); describe
2. to give an account of the results of an investigation (into) to report on housing conditions
3. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) (of a committee, legislative body, etc.) to make a formal report on (a bill)
4. (tr) to complain about (a person), esp to a superior I'll report you to the teacher
5. (tr) to reveal information about (a fugitive, escaped prisoner, etc.) esp concerning his whereabouts
6. (intr) to present oneself or be present at an appointed place or for a specific purpose report to the manager's office
7. (intr) to say or show that one is (in a certain state) to report fit
8. (intr; foll by to) to be responsible to and under the authority of the plant manager reports to the production controller
9. (Communication Arts / Journalism & Publishing) (intr) to act as a reporter for a newspaper or for radio or television
10. (Law) Law to take down in writing details of (the proceedings of a court of law) as a record or for publication
[from Old French, from reporter to carry back, from Latin reportāre, from re- + portāre to carry]
reportable adj
Thursday, November 11, 2010
English - Experiment
ex·per·i·ment (k-spr-mnt)
n.
1.
a. A test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a known truth, examine the validity of a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy of something previously untried.
b. The process of conducting such a test; experimentation.
2. An innovative act or procedure: "Democracy is only an experiment in government" (William Ralph Inge).
3. The result of experimentation: "We are not [nature's] only experiment" (R. Buckminster Fuller).
intr.v. (-mnt) ex·per·i·ment·ed, ex·per·i·ment·ing, ex·per·i·ments
1. To conduct an experiment.
2. To try something new, especially in order to gain experience: experiment with new methods of teaching.
[Middle English, from Old French, from Latin expermentum, from experr, to try; see per-3 in Indo-European roots.]
ex·peri·menter n.
experiment
n [ɪkˈspɛrɪmənt]
1. a test or investigation, esp one planned to provide evidence for or against a hypothesis: a scientific experiment
2. the act of conducting such an investigation or test; experimentation; research
3. an attempt at something new or different; an effort to be original a poetic experiment
4. an obsolete word for experience
vb [ɪkˈspɛrɪˌmɛnt]
(intr) to make an experiment or experiments
[from Latin experīmentum proof, trial, from experīrī to test; see experience]
experimenter n
experiment (k-spr-mnt)
A test or procedure carried out under controlled conditions to determine the validity of a hypothesis or make a discovery. See Note at hypothesis.
n.
1.
a. A test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a known truth, examine the validity of a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy of something previously untried.
b. The process of conducting such a test; experimentation.
2. An innovative act or procedure: "Democracy is only an experiment in government" (William Ralph Inge).
3. The result of experimentation: "We are not [nature's] only experiment" (R. Buckminster Fuller).
intr.v. (-mnt) ex·per·i·ment·ed, ex·per·i·ment·ing, ex·per·i·ments
1. To conduct an experiment.
2. To try something new, especially in order to gain experience: experiment with new methods of teaching.
[Middle English, from Old French, from Latin expermentum, from experr, to try; see per-3 in Indo-European roots.]
ex·peri·menter n.
experiment
n [ɪkˈspɛrɪmənt]
1. a test or investigation, esp one planned to provide evidence for or against a hypothesis: a scientific experiment
2. the act of conducting such an investigation or test; experimentation; research
3. an attempt at something new or different; an effort to be original a poetic experiment
4. an obsolete word for experience
vb [ɪkˈspɛrɪˌmɛnt]
(intr) to make an experiment or experiments
[from Latin experīmentum proof, trial, from experīrī to test; see experience]
experimenter n
experiment (k-spr-mnt)
A test or procedure carried out under controlled conditions to determine the validity of a hypothesis or make a discovery. See Note at hypothesis.
Pol Sci - Constitution Law
Constitutional law is a body of law dealing with the distribution and exercise of government power.
Pol Sci - Essential Requisites of a good Constitution
A good written constitution must possess three characteristics: brief, broad, and definite.
Brief: since its outlines the objectives of the state not on a limited scope but in a measurable extent. It is a written instrument that should not contain many details in form.
Broad: in its extent with the purpose of outlining the framework of the organization of the state. A declaration of domains and functions of the government, and the interrelationships between those in power and the governed, necessitates an extensive or broad document.
Definite: The possible inclusion of vague or unclear words or phrases having two or more possible meanings may cause conflict of interpretation.
Brief: since its outlines the objectives of the state not on a limited scope but in a measurable extent. It is a written instrument that should not contain many details in form.
Broad: in its extent with the purpose of outlining the framework of the organization of the state. A declaration of domains and functions of the government, and the interrelationships between those in power and the governed, necessitates an extensive or broad document.
Definite: The possible inclusion of vague or unclear words or phrases having two or more possible meanings may cause conflict of interpretation.
P.E. - Volleyball services
Types of Service
1. Underhand service - a basic type of service. This is the easiest and most commonly used by beginners as this does not require the skill.
2. Frontal - this was introduced by the Americans in early competitions. It requires strength of the bisep and tricep in order to execute it.
3. Roundhouse
4. Floated
5. Jump service
3 cardinal rules in service
1. Service with power but control
2. Service within the limit of the court
3. Service where you aim for
There are three basic pass used by the setter in aiming for a spike. A one-arm, two-arm, and overhead pass that rules inside the court each time by attempt for a kill.
1. Underhand service - a basic type of service. This is the easiest and most commonly used by beginners as this does not require the skill.
2. Frontal - this was introduced by the Americans in early competitions. It requires strength of the bisep and tricep in order to execute it.
3. Roundhouse
4. Floated
5. Jump service
3 cardinal rules in service
1. Service with power but control
2. Service within the limit of the court
3. Service where you aim for
There are three basic pass used by the setter in aiming for a spike. A one-arm, two-arm, and overhead pass that rules inside the court each time by attempt for a kill.
P.E. - Volleyball rules s
Rules of the game
Volleyball court
The court
The game is played on a volleyball court 18 meters (59 feet) long and 9 meters (29.5 feet) wide, divided into two 9 m × 9 m halves by a one-meter (40-inch) wide net placed so that the top of the net is 2.43 meters (7 feet 11 5/8 inches) above the center of the court for men's competition, and 2.24 meters (7 feet 4 1/8 inches) for women's competition (these heights are varied for veterans and junior competitions).
There is a line 3 meters from and parallel to the net in each team court which is considered the "attack line". This "3 meter" (or 10 foot) line divides the court into "back row" and "front row" areas (also back court and front court). These are in turn divided into 3 areas each: these are numbered as follows, starting from area "1", which is the position of the serving player:
After a team gains the serve (also known as siding out), its members must rotate in a clockwise direction, with the player previously in area "2" moving to area "1" and so on, with the player from area "1" moving to area "6".
The team courts are surrounded by an area called the free zone which is a minimum of 3 meters wide and which the players may enter and play within after the service of the ball.[9] All lines denoting the boundaries of the team court and the attack zone are drawn or painted within the dimensions of the area and are therefore a part of the court or zone. If a ball comes in contact with the line, the ball is considered to be "in". An antenna is placed on each side of the net perpendicular to the sideline and is a vertical extension of the side boundary of the court. A ball passing over the net must pass completely between the antennae (or their theoretical extensions to the ceiling) without contacting them.
The ball
Main article: Volleyball (ball)
FIVB regulations state that the ball must be spherical, made of leather or synthetic leather, have a circumference of 65–67 cm, a weight of 260–280 g and an inside pressure of 0.30–0.325 kg/cm2.[10] Other governing bodies have similar regulations.
Game play
Each team consists of six players. To get play started, a team is chosen to serve by coin toss. A player from the serving team throws the ball into the air and attempts to hit the ball so it passes over the net on a course such that it will land in the opposing team's court (the serve). The opposing team must use a combination of no more than three contacts with the volleyball to return the ball to the opponent's side of the net. These contacts usually consist first of the bump or pass so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards the player designated as the setter; second of the set (usually an over-hand pass using wrists to push finger-tips at the ball) by the setter so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards a spot where one of the players designated as an attacker can hit it, and third by the attacker who spikes (jumping, raising one arm above the head and hitting the ball so it will move quickly down to the ground on the opponent's court) to return the ball over the net. The team with possession of the ball that is trying to attack the ball as described is said to be on offense.
The team on defense attempts to prevent the attacker from directing the ball into their court: players at the net jump and reach above the top (and if possible, across the plane) of the net in order to block the attacked ball. If the ball is hit around, above, or through the block, the defensive players arranged in the rest of the court attempt to control the ball with a dig (usually a fore-arm pass of a hard-driven ball). After a successful dig, the team transitions to offense.
The game continues in this manner, rallying back and forth, until the ball touches the court within the boundaries or until an error is made. The most frequent errors that are made are either to fail to return the ball over the net within the allowed three touches, or to cause the ball to land outside the court. A ball is "in" if any part of it touches a sideline or end-line, and a strong spike may compress the ball enough when it lands that a ball which at first appears to be going out may actually be in. Players may travel well outside the court to play a ball that has gone over a sideline or end-line in the air.
Other common errors include a player touching the ball twice in succession, a player "catching" the ball, a player touching the net while attempting to play the ball, or a player penetrating under the net into the opponent's court. There are a large number of other errors specified in the rules, although most of them are infrequent occurrences. These errors include back-row or libero players spiking the ball or blocking (back-row players may spike the ball if they jump from behind the attack line), players not being in the correct position when the ball is served, attacking the serve in the front court and above the height of the net, using another player as a source of support to reach the ball, stepping over the back boundary line when serving, taking more than 8 seconds to serve,[11] or playing the ball when it is above the opponent's court.
Scoring
When the ball contacts the floor within the court boundaries or an error is made, the team that did not make the error is awarded a point, whether they served the ball or not. If the ball hits the line, the ball is counted as in. The team that won the point serves for the next point. If the team that won the point served in the previous point, the same player serves again. If the team that won the point did not serve the previous point, the players of the team rotate their position on the court in a clockwise manner. The game continues, with the first team to score 25 points (and be two points ahead) awarded the set. Matches are best-of-five sets and the fifth set (if necessary) is usually played to 15 points. (Scoring differs between leagues, tournaments, and levels; high schools sometimes play best-of-three to 25; in the NCAA games are played best-of-five to 25 as of the 2008 season.)[12]
Before 1999, points could be scored only when a team had the serve (side-out scoring) and all sets went up to only 15 points. The FIVB changed the rules in 1999 (with the changes being compulsory in 2000) to use the current scoring system (formerly known as rally point system), primarily to make the length of the match more predictable and to make the game more spectator- and television-friendly.
Libero
In 1998 the libero player was introduced internationally.[13] The libero is a player specialized in defensive skills: the libero must wear a contrasting jersey color from his or her teammates and cannot block or attack the ball when it is entirely above net height. When the ball is not in play, the libero can replace any back-row player, without prior notice to the officials. This replacement does not count against the substitution limit each team is allowed per set, although the libero may be replaced only by the player whom they replaced.
The libero may function as a setter only under certain restrictions. If she/he makes an overhand set, she/he must be standing behind (and not stepping on) the 3-meter line; otherwise, the ball cannot be attacked above the net in front of the 3-meter line. An underhand pass is allowed from any part of the court.
The libero is, generally, the most skilled defensive player on the team. There is also a libero tracking sheet, where the referees or officiating team must keep track of who the libero subs in and out for. There may only be one libero per set (game), although there may be a different libero in the beginning of any new set (game).
Furthermore, a libero is not allowed to serve, according to international rules, with the exception of the NCAA women's volleyball games, where a 2004 rule change allows the libero to serve, but only in a specific rotation. That is, the libero can only serve for one person, not for all of the people for whom he or she goes in. That rule change was also applied to high school and junior high play soon after.
Recent rule changes
Other rule changes enacted in 2000 include allowing serves in which the ball touches the net, as long as it goes over the net into the opponents' court. Also, the service area was expanded to allow players to serve from anywhere behind the end line but still within the theoretical extension of the sidelines. Other changes were made to lighten up calls on faults for carries and double-touches, such as allowing multiple contacts by a single player ("double-hits") on a team's first contact provided that they are a part of a single play on the ball.
In 2008, the NCAA changed the minimum number of points needed to win any of the first four sets from 30 to 25 for women's volleyball (men's volleyball remained at 30.) If a fifth (deciding) set is reached, the minimum required score remains at 15. In addition, the word "game" is now referred to as "set".[12]
Changes in rules have been studied and announced by FIVB in recent years, and they have released the updated rules in 2009.[14]
Volleyball court
The court
The game is played on a volleyball court 18 meters (59 feet) long and 9 meters (29.5 feet) wide, divided into two 9 m × 9 m halves by a one-meter (40-inch) wide net placed so that the top of the net is 2.43 meters (7 feet 11 5/8 inches) above the center of the court for men's competition, and 2.24 meters (7 feet 4 1/8 inches) for women's competition (these heights are varied for veterans and junior competitions).
There is a line 3 meters from and parallel to the net in each team court which is considered the "attack line". This "3 meter" (or 10 foot) line divides the court into "back row" and "front row" areas (also back court and front court). These are in turn divided into 3 areas each: these are numbered as follows, starting from area "1", which is the position of the serving player:
After a team gains the serve (also known as siding out), its members must rotate in a clockwise direction, with the player previously in area "2" moving to area "1" and so on, with the player from area "1" moving to area "6".
The team courts are surrounded by an area called the free zone which is a minimum of 3 meters wide and which the players may enter and play within after the service of the ball.[9] All lines denoting the boundaries of the team court and the attack zone are drawn or painted within the dimensions of the area and are therefore a part of the court or zone. If a ball comes in contact with the line, the ball is considered to be "in". An antenna is placed on each side of the net perpendicular to the sideline and is a vertical extension of the side boundary of the court. A ball passing over the net must pass completely between the antennae (or their theoretical extensions to the ceiling) without contacting them.
The ball
Main article: Volleyball (ball)
FIVB regulations state that the ball must be spherical, made of leather or synthetic leather, have a circumference of 65–67 cm, a weight of 260–280 g and an inside pressure of 0.30–0.325 kg/cm2.[10] Other governing bodies have similar regulations.
Game play
Each team consists of six players. To get play started, a team is chosen to serve by coin toss. A player from the serving team throws the ball into the air and attempts to hit the ball so it passes over the net on a course such that it will land in the opposing team's court (the serve). The opposing team must use a combination of no more than three contacts with the volleyball to return the ball to the opponent's side of the net. These contacts usually consist first of the bump or pass so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards the player designated as the setter; second of the set (usually an over-hand pass using wrists to push finger-tips at the ball) by the setter so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards a spot where one of the players designated as an attacker can hit it, and third by the attacker who spikes (jumping, raising one arm above the head and hitting the ball so it will move quickly down to the ground on the opponent's court) to return the ball over the net. The team with possession of the ball that is trying to attack the ball as described is said to be on offense.
The team on defense attempts to prevent the attacker from directing the ball into their court: players at the net jump and reach above the top (and if possible, across the plane) of the net in order to block the attacked ball. If the ball is hit around, above, or through the block, the defensive players arranged in the rest of the court attempt to control the ball with a dig (usually a fore-arm pass of a hard-driven ball). After a successful dig, the team transitions to offense.
The game continues in this manner, rallying back and forth, until the ball touches the court within the boundaries or until an error is made. The most frequent errors that are made are either to fail to return the ball over the net within the allowed three touches, or to cause the ball to land outside the court. A ball is "in" if any part of it touches a sideline or end-line, and a strong spike may compress the ball enough when it lands that a ball which at first appears to be going out may actually be in. Players may travel well outside the court to play a ball that has gone over a sideline or end-line in the air.
Other common errors include a player touching the ball twice in succession, a player "catching" the ball, a player touching the net while attempting to play the ball, or a player penetrating under the net into the opponent's court. There are a large number of other errors specified in the rules, although most of them are infrequent occurrences. These errors include back-row or libero players spiking the ball or blocking (back-row players may spike the ball if they jump from behind the attack line), players not being in the correct position when the ball is served, attacking the serve in the front court and above the height of the net, using another player as a source of support to reach the ball, stepping over the back boundary line when serving, taking more than 8 seconds to serve,[11] or playing the ball when it is above the opponent's court.
Scoring
When the ball contacts the floor within the court boundaries or an error is made, the team that did not make the error is awarded a point, whether they served the ball or not. If the ball hits the line, the ball is counted as in. The team that won the point serves for the next point. If the team that won the point served in the previous point, the same player serves again. If the team that won the point did not serve the previous point, the players of the team rotate their position on the court in a clockwise manner. The game continues, with the first team to score 25 points (and be two points ahead) awarded the set. Matches are best-of-five sets and the fifth set (if necessary) is usually played to 15 points. (Scoring differs between leagues, tournaments, and levels; high schools sometimes play best-of-three to 25; in the NCAA games are played best-of-five to 25 as of the 2008 season.)[12]
Before 1999, points could be scored only when a team had the serve (side-out scoring) and all sets went up to only 15 points. The FIVB changed the rules in 1999 (with the changes being compulsory in 2000) to use the current scoring system (formerly known as rally point system), primarily to make the length of the match more predictable and to make the game more spectator- and television-friendly.
Libero
In 1998 the libero player was introduced internationally.[13] The libero is a player specialized in defensive skills: the libero must wear a contrasting jersey color from his or her teammates and cannot block or attack the ball when it is entirely above net height. When the ball is not in play, the libero can replace any back-row player, without prior notice to the officials. This replacement does not count against the substitution limit each team is allowed per set, although the libero may be replaced only by the player whom they replaced.
The libero may function as a setter only under certain restrictions. If she/he makes an overhand set, she/he must be standing behind (and not stepping on) the 3-meter line; otherwise, the ball cannot be attacked above the net in front of the 3-meter line. An underhand pass is allowed from any part of the court.
The libero is, generally, the most skilled defensive player on the team. There is also a libero tracking sheet, where the referees or officiating team must keep track of who the libero subs in and out for. There may only be one libero per set (game), although there may be a different libero in the beginning of any new set (game).
Furthermore, a libero is not allowed to serve, according to international rules, with the exception of the NCAA women's volleyball games, where a 2004 rule change allows the libero to serve, but only in a specific rotation. That is, the libero can only serve for one person, not for all of the people for whom he or she goes in. That rule change was also applied to high school and junior high play soon after.
Recent rule changes
Other rule changes enacted in 2000 include allowing serves in which the ball touches the net, as long as it goes over the net into the opponents' court. Also, the service area was expanded to allow players to serve from anywhere behind the end line but still within the theoretical extension of the sidelines. Other changes were made to lighten up calls on faults for carries and double-touches, such as allowing multiple contacts by a single player ("double-hits") on a team's first contact provided that they are a part of a single play on the ball.
In 2008, the NCAA changed the minimum number of points needed to win any of the first four sets from 30 to 25 for women's volleyball (men's volleyball remained at 30.) If a fifth (deciding) set is reached, the minimum required score remains at 15. In addition, the word "game" is now referred to as "set".[12]
Changes in rules have been studied and announced by FIVB in recent years, and they have released the updated rules in 2009.[14]
P.E. - Volleyball Rules
Rules of volleyball can seem intimating to learn at first. Whether a beginning player, coach or fan, learn volleyball rules and you'll make volleyball a much more enjoyable experience.
States of Play - Rules of Volleyball
In Play After the Referee’s whistle for service, the volleyball is “in play” wants the contact for serve has been made.
Out of Play The volleyball is “out of play” once a fault has occurred and is whistled by a referee.
If an inadvertent whistle occurs, the rally is ended and the referee must make a ruling that doesn’t penalize either team.
The Ball is In - Rules of Volleyball The volleyball is “In” once it touches the court. The courts boundary lines are part of the court and are “In”.
The Ball is Out The ball is “Out” when…
-The volleyball contacts the floor completely outside the boundary lines.
-The volleyball touches an object outside the court, the ceiling or person that is “out of play”.
-The volleyball touches the ropes, antennae, posts, or net itself that is outside the antennae.
-The volleyball crosses the vertical plane of the net either partially or totally outside the crossing space (above or completely outside the antennae).
-The volleyball completely crosses the space under the net.
The volleyball remains “in play” if it contacts objects or the ceiling that is higher than 4.6 meters (15 feet) above the playing area.
The volleyball is “Out” and a playover is directed when…
-The volleyball contacts an overhead object that is less than 4.6 meters (15 feet) above a playable area and would have remained playable if the object wasn’t present.
-The volleyball comes to rest on an overhead object above a teams playing area and is still a playable ball.
-If an official, media equipment, or spectator interferes with a players legal attempt to play the ball.
Playing the Ball
Each team must play within its own playing area. However, the ball may be played beyond the “free zone”.
The volleyball may be retrieved from beyond the free zone if…
-The surface change is less than 1.25 centimeters (1/2 inch), the secondary surface is lower than the free zone, and the area is free of obstruction.
Playing a ball over a non-playable area - Rules of Volleyball The player retrieving a volleyball over a non-playable area must be in contact with the playing surface when contact with the ball is made.
In the rules of volleyball non-playable areas are defined as…
-Walls, bleachers, or spectator seating areas
-Team benches and any area behind the team benches
-The area between the scorers table and team benches
-Any other area outlined by the Referee in the pre-match conference
Contacting the Ball - Rules of Volleyball If a divider or net is separating courts, only the player making an attempt on the ball may move the divider or net to play the ball.
When competition is occurring or is scheduled on adjacent courts, it is a fault for a player to enter an adjacent court to make a play on a ball or after playing a ball.
The free zone and the service zone on adjacent courts is a playable area.
Team Contacts - Rules of Volleyball A contact is any contact with the ball by a legal player.
A team is entitled to a maximum of 3 contacts.
If a team contacts the volleyball more than 3 times without returning the ball to the opposing team, a “4 hits” fault occurs.
Consecutive Contacts - Rules of Volleyball A player may not contact the ball two times consecutively.
Simultaneous Contacts - Rules of Volleyball Two or three players may touch the ball at the same moment.
When two or more teammates touch the ball simultaneously, it is counted as one contact. Any player may play the next ball if the simultaneous contact isn’t the third team contact.
If opposing opponents touch the volleyball simultaneously over the net and the ball remains in play, the team receiving the ball is entitled to another 3 hits. If such a ball goes “Out” it is the fault of the team on the opposite side.
A “joust” occurs when players of opposing teams cause the ball to come to rest above the net through simultaneous contact. A joust is not a fault and play continues as if play was instantaneous.
Assisting a Player - Rules of Volleyball A player is not permitted to take support from a teammate or any structure in order to make a play on the ball. However, a player that is about to commit a fault may be stopped or held back by a teammate.
Characteristics of Ball Contacts - Rules of Volleyball The volleyball may touch any part of the body.
The volleyball must be hit, not caught or thrown. The ball may rebound in any direction.
The volleyball may touch various parts of the body, provided the contacts happen simultaneously.
RULES OF VOLLEYBALL TIP:
"Ugly Play" or "bad form" isn't a fault. There are basically just two different kinds of playing faults when making a play on the ball, double contact or prolonged contact, that's it.
Exceptions for consecutive contacts…
-When blocking, consecutive contacts may be made by one or more blockers, provided the contacts take place during one action.
-During a first team contact, the volleyball may contact various parts of the body consecutively, as long as the contacts are made during one action.
Playing Faults - Rules of Volleyball
-FOUR HITS: A team contacts the volleyball 4 times before returning it.
-ASSISTED HIT: A player gets support from a teammate in order to make a play on a volleyball.
-CATCH: The volleyball is caught or thrown. It doesn’t rebound from the contact.
-DOUBLE CONTACT: A player contacts the volleyball twice (2 separate attempts) in succession or the ball contacts various parts of a player’s body in succession.
Ball at the Net - Rules of Volleyball
A ball sent to the opponents court must cross the net in the crossing space.
The crossing space is the part of the vertical plane of the net that is…
-Below, by the top of the net to above, by the ceiling
-At the sides by the antennae and its imaginary vertical extension
Ball and the Net - Rules of Volleyball The volleyball may touch the net while crossing it.
A volleyball driven into the net may be played within the limits of the 3 team hits.
If the ball rips the net or tears it down the rally must be replayed.
Player at the Net - Rules of Volleyball
Player Reaching Across the Net…
-A blocker may reach beyond the net provide they don’t interfere with the opponents play before or during the attack hit.
-After an attack hit, the attacker is permitted to pass his or her hands beyond the net, provided the contact has been made within their own playing space. RULES OF VOLLEYBALL TIP:
Official volleyball rules allow players to reach over the net when blocking during any of these 4 situations...
-After the opponent has made 3 contacts.
-If in the referees judgement the ball is being attacked.
-After the opponents 1st or 2nd contact and ball is coming over.
-After the opponents 1st or 2nd contact and ball isn't coming over but the opponent couldn't have possibly made a play on the ball.
Player Under the Net - Rules of Volleyball A player can penetrate into the opponents space under the net provided that this doesn’t interfere with the opponents play.
When penetrating beyond the centerline…
-To touch the opponents’ court with a foot (feet) or hand (hands) is permitted provided that some part of the penetrating foot or hand remains either in contact with or above the centerline.
-To contact the body with any other part of the body is forbidden.
A player may enter the opponents’ court when the ball is “out of play”.
Players may penetrate into the opponents free zone provided they don’t interfere with opponents play.
Player Contacting the Net - Rules of Volleyball Contact with the net by a player is not a fault unless it is made during the action of playing the ball or it interferes with play.
Some actions in playing the volleyball include actions where players don’t actually touch the volleyball.
Once the player has hit the volleyball, they may touch the post, rope, or any object outside the total length of the net as long as it doesn’t interfere with play.
When the ball is driven into the net and causes the net to touch an opponent, no fault is committed.
Playing Faults at the Net - Rules of Volleyball
-A player touches the volleyball or an opponent in the opponents’ space before or during the opponents attack hit.
-A player penetrates into the opponents’ space under the net, interfering with play.
-A player penetrates into the opponents’ court.
-A player touches the net or antennae during the action of playing the ball or interferes with play.
Service - Rules of Volleyball
The service is the act of put the volleyball into play from the service zone.
Serving Order - Rules of Volleyball The first service of the first set (game) and the deciding set is executed by the team determined by the toss.
The other sets will be started by the team that didn’t start the serve first in the previous set.
The players must follow the service order recorded on the line up sheet. After the first serve, the player to serve is determined as follows…
-When the serving team wins the rally, the player (or substitute) who served before serves again.
-When the receiving team wins the rally, it gains the right to serve and rotates before actually serving. The player that was “right front” is now in the “right back” position and will serve.
Authorizing a Serve - Rules of Volleyball The first referee authorizes the server to serve after have checked the teams are ready to play and the server is in possession of the volleyball.
Executing a Serve - Rules of Volleyball The volleyball shall be hit with one hand or any part of one arm after being tossed or released from one hand or both hands.
Only one toss or release of the volleyball is allowed. Dribble or moving the ball around is permitted.
At the moment of the serve contact, or takeoff for a jump serve, the server must not touch the court or the ground outside the service zone.
After the contact for serve, the player may step or land outside the service zone, or inside the court.
The entire “service action” must take place within the playing area.
USAV Rule The server must contact the ball within 8 seconds after the referee whistles for serve.
USAV Rule for 14 years and younger The server must contact the ball within 5 seconds after the referee whistles for serve. If the ball after being tossed or released by the server, lands without touching the player, it is considered a service tossing error. After the tossing error, the referee authorizes services again and the server must execute it within 5 seconds. One service tossing error is permitted for each service.
A serve executed before the referees whistle for serve is cancelled and repeated.
After the whistle for serve, no other actions requests for line-up check, time-out, substitution, etc.) may be considered until after the volleyball has been served and the rally completed. This is true even if a request has been made after a server has initiated service action and legally permitted the ball to fall to the floor.
A re-serve is considered part of a single effort to serve and must be completed before any requests may be considered.
Screening - Rules of Volleyball The players on the serving team must not prevent their opponent, through individual or collective screening, from seeing the server or the flight path of the volleyball.
A player or group of players on the serving team make a screen by waving their arms, jumping or moving sideways, or by standing grouped together to hide the flight path of the volleyball during the execution of the serve.
The factors to be weighed when judging whether a screen is being committed are…
-Relative position of the players on the serving team
-Path of the serve
-Speed of the serve
-Trajectory of the serve
If the players of the serving team are positioned close to each other, the serve passes over these players, is fast and has a low trajectory; the probability is greater that a screen has been committed.
The probability of a screen occurring is less if…
-Players of the serving team aren’t positioned closed to each other or are attempting to prevent a screen
-Path of the served ball is not over the players
-Speed of the serve is slow
-Trajectory of the serve is high
Service Faults - Rules of Volleyball The following are serving faults even if the opponent is out of position…
-The server violates the service order
-The server doesn’t execute the service properly
Faults After the Serve - Rules of Volleyball After the ball has been correctly contacted, the service becomes a fault (assuming there’s no position fault) if the ball…
-Touches a player of the serving team or fails to completely cross the vertical plane of the net through the crossing space
-Goes “out of play”
-Passes over a screen
Faults after Service and Positioning Faults - Rules of Volleyball If the server makes a fault at the moment of service contact, and the opponent is out of position, it is the serving fault which is sanctioned.
However, if the execution of service is done correctly, but the serve becomes faulty (ball goes out, volleyball goes over a screen, etc.) the positional fault has taken place first and is sanctioned.
Attack Hit - Rules of Volleyball
All actions which direct the volleyball toward the opponent, with the exception of a serve or block, are considered an attack hits.
During an attack hit, tipping the volleyball is permitted only if the ball is cleanly hit, not caught or thrown.
An attack hit is completed the moment it completely crosses the vertical plane of the net or is touched by an opponent.
Restrictions - Rules of Volleyball A front row player may complete an attack hit at any height, provide the contact is made within the players own playing space.
A back row player may complete an attack hit at any height from beyond the front zone…
-At the moment of takeoff, the players foot (or feet) can’t touch or cross over the attack line.
-After contact with the volleyball, the player may land in the front zone.
A back row player may also complete an attack hit from the front zone if at moment of contact with the volleyball, the “entire ball” isn’t higher than the top of the net.
No player is permitted to complete an attack hit on the opponents serve when the ball is in the front zone and the “entire ball” is higher than the top of the net.
Faults of the attack hit…
-A player hits the ball within the opponents playing space
-A player hits the ball “out of play”
-A back row player completes an attack hit from the front zone when at moment of contact with the ball; the “entire ball” is higher than the top of the net.
-A player completes an attack hit on the opponents serve when the ball is in the front zone and at the moment of contact the “entire ball” is higher than the top of the net.
-A libero completes an attack hit and at the moment of contact the “entire ball” is higher than the top of the net.
RULES OF VOLLEYBALL TIP:
Rules in volleyball allow the libero to attack from anywhere on the court as long as at the moment on contact the ball or part of the ball is below the top of the net.
-A player completes an attack hit and at the moment of contact the “entire ball” is higher than the top of the net when the ball is coming from an overhand finger pass by a libero that is in the front zone. In this situation, iff an attack hit fault is completed simultaneously with a blocking fault by the opponent, a double fault is committed.
Block - Rules of Volleyball
Blocking - Rules of Volleyball Blocking is the action of a player close to the net intercepting a volleyball coming from the opponent by reaching higher than the top of the net. Only front row players are permitted to complete a block.
A block attempt is the action of trying to block without touching the volleyball.
A block is completed whenever a volleyball is touched by a blocker.
A collective block is executed by 2 or 3 players close to each other and is completed when one of them touches the volleyball.
Consecutive contacts of the volleyball may be made by one or more blockers provided the contacts are during one action.
When blocking, a player may place hands beyond the net, provided this action doesn’t interfere with the opponents play. Thus, a blocker can’t touch a volleyball beyond the net until the attacker has executed the attack hit.
Blocking beyond the net is permitted provided…
-The block is made after the opponents have hit the volleyball in such a manner that the ball would clearly cross the net if not touched by a player and no member of the attacking team is in position to make a play on the volleyball.
-The ball is falling near the net and no member of the attacking team could make a play on the volleyball.
A block contact is not counted as a team contact. Therefore, after a block, a team is entitled to three contacts to return the volleyball.
The first team contact after a block may be executed by any player, include who touched the volleyball during the block.
Blocking an opponent’s serve is forbidden.
If a blocking fault is completed simultaneously with an opponents attack hit fault, a double fault is committed and the rally is replayed.
Blocking Faults - Rules of Volleyball The following are blocking faults…
-The blocker touches the ball in the opponents space either before or simultaneously with the opponents attack hit.
-A back row player or libero completes a block or participates in a collective block. Blocking the opponents serve.
-The ball is deflected “out of play” off a block.
-Blocking the ball in the opponents space outside the antennae.
States of Play - Rules of Volleyball
In Play After the Referee’s whistle for service, the volleyball is “in play” wants the contact for serve has been made.
Out of Play The volleyball is “out of play” once a fault has occurred and is whistled by a referee.
If an inadvertent whistle occurs, the rally is ended and the referee must make a ruling that doesn’t penalize either team.
The Ball is In - Rules of Volleyball The volleyball is “In” once it touches the court. The courts boundary lines are part of the court and are “In”.
The Ball is Out The ball is “Out” when…
-The volleyball contacts the floor completely outside the boundary lines.
-The volleyball touches an object outside the court, the ceiling or person that is “out of play”.
-The volleyball touches the ropes, antennae, posts, or net itself that is outside the antennae.
-The volleyball crosses the vertical plane of the net either partially or totally outside the crossing space (above or completely outside the antennae).
-The volleyball completely crosses the space under the net.
The volleyball remains “in play” if it contacts objects or the ceiling that is higher than 4.6 meters (15 feet) above the playing area.
The volleyball is “Out” and a playover is directed when…
-The volleyball contacts an overhead object that is less than 4.6 meters (15 feet) above a playable area and would have remained playable if the object wasn’t present.
-The volleyball comes to rest on an overhead object above a teams playing area and is still a playable ball.
-If an official, media equipment, or spectator interferes with a players legal attempt to play the ball.
Playing the Ball
Each team must play within its own playing area. However, the ball may be played beyond the “free zone”.
The volleyball may be retrieved from beyond the free zone if…
-The surface change is less than 1.25 centimeters (1/2 inch), the secondary surface is lower than the free zone, and the area is free of obstruction.
Playing a ball over a non-playable area - Rules of Volleyball The player retrieving a volleyball over a non-playable area must be in contact with the playing surface when contact with the ball is made.
In the rules of volleyball non-playable areas are defined as…
-Walls, bleachers, or spectator seating areas
-Team benches and any area behind the team benches
-The area between the scorers table and team benches
-Any other area outlined by the Referee in the pre-match conference
Contacting the Ball - Rules of Volleyball If a divider or net is separating courts, only the player making an attempt on the ball may move the divider or net to play the ball.
When competition is occurring or is scheduled on adjacent courts, it is a fault for a player to enter an adjacent court to make a play on a ball or after playing a ball.
The free zone and the service zone on adjacent courts is a playable area.
Team Contacts - Rules of Volleyball A contact is any contact with the ball by a legal player.
A team is entitled to a maximum of 3 contacts.
If a team contacts the volleyball more than 3 times without returning the ball to the opposing team, a “4 hits” fault occurs.
Consecutive Contacts - Rules of Volleyball A player may not contact the ball two times consecutively.
Simultaneous Contacts - Rules of Volleyball Two or three players may touch the ball at the same moment.
When two or more teammates touch the ball simultaneously, it is counted as one contact. Any player may play the next ball if the simultaneous contact isn’t the third team contact.
If opposing opponents touch the volleyball simultaneously over the net and the ball remains in play, the team receiving the ball is entitled to another 3 hits. If such a ball goes “Out” it is the fault of the team on the opposite side.
A “joust” occurs when players of opposing teams cause the ball to come to rest above the net through simultaneous contact. A joust is not a fault and play continues as if play was instantaneous.
Assisting a Player - Rules of Volleyball A player is not permitted to take support from a teammate or any structure in order to make a play on the ball. However, a player that is about to commit a fault may be stopped or held back by a teammate.
Characteristics of Ball Contacts - Rules of Volleyball The volleyball may touch any part of the body.
The volleyball must be hit, not caught or thrown. The ball may rebound in any direction.
The volleyball may touch various parts of the body, provided the contacts happen simultaneously.
RULES OF VOLLEYBALL TIP:
"Ugly Play" or "bad form" isn't a fault. There are basically just two different kinds of playing faults when making a play on the ball, double contact or prolonged contact, that's it.
Exceptions for consecutive contacts…
-When blocking, consecutive contacts may be made by one or more blockers, provided the contacts take place during one action.
-During a first team contact, the volleyball may contact various parts of the body consecutively, as long as the contacts are made during one action.
Playing Faults - Rules of Volleyball
-FOUR HITS: A team contacts the volleyball 4 times before returning it.
-ASSISTED HIT: A player gets support from a teammate in order to make a play on a volleyball.
-CATCH: The volleyball is caught or thrown. It doesn’t rebound from the contact.
-DOUBLE CONTACT: A player contacts the volleyball twice (2 separate attempts) in succession or the ball contacts various parts of a player’s body in succession.
Ball at the Net - Rules of Volleyball
A ball sent to the opponents court must cross the net in the crossing space.
The crossing space is the part of the vertical plane of the net that is…
-Below, by the top of the net to above, by the ceiling
-At the sides by the antennae and its imaginary vertical extension
Ball and the Net - Rules of Volleyball The volleyball may touch the net while crossing it.
A volleyball driven into the net may be played within the limits of the 3 team hits.
If the ball rips the net or tears it down the rally must be replayed.
Player at the Net - Rules of Volleyball
Player Reaching Across the Net…
-A blocker may reach beyond the net provide they don’t interfere with the opponents play before or during the attack hit.
-After an attack hit, the attacker is permitted to pass his or her hands beyond the net, provided the contact has been made within their own playing space. RULES OF VOLLEYBALL TIP:
Official volleyball rules allow players to reach over the net when blocking during any of these 4 situations...
-After the opponent has made 3 contacts.
-If in the referees judgement the ball is being attacked.
-After the opponents 1st or 2nd contact and ball is coming over.
-After the opponents 1st or 2nd contact and ball isn't coming over but the opponent couldn't have possibly made a play on the ball.
Player Under the Net - Rules of Volleyball A player can penetrate into the opponents space under the net provided that this doesn’t interfere with the opponents play.
When penetrating beyond the centerline…
-To touch the opponents’ court with a foot (feet) or hand (hands) is permitted provided that some part of the penetrating foot or hand remains either in contact with or above the centerline.
-To contact the body with any other part of the body is forbidden.
A player may enter the opponents’ court when the ball is “out of play”.
Players may penetrate into the opponents free zone provided they don’t interfere with opponents play.
Player Contacting the Net - Rules of Volleyball Contact with the net by a player is not a fault unless it is made during the action of playing the ball or it interferes with play.
Some actions in playing the volleyball include actions where players don’t actually touch the volleyball.
Once the player has hit the volleyball, they may touch the post, rope, or any object outside the total length of the net as long as it doesn’t interfere with play.
When the ball is driven into the net and causes the net to touch an opponent, no fault is committed.
Playing Faults at the Net - Rules of Volleyball
-A player touches the volleyball or an opponent in the opponents’ space before or during the opponents attack hit.
-A player penetrates into the opponents’ space under the net, interfering with play.
-A player penetrates into the opponents’ court.
-A player touches the net or antennae during the action of playing the ball or interferes with play.
Service - Rules of Volleyball
The service is the act of put the volleyball into play from the service zone.
Serving Order - Rules of Volleyball The first service of the first set (game) and the deciding set is executed by the team determined by the toss.
The other sets will be started by the team that didn’t start the serve first in the previous set.
The players must follow the service order recorded on the line up sheet. After the first serve, the player to serve is determined as follows…
-When the serving team wins the rally, the player (or substitute) who served before serves again.
-When the receiving team wins the rally, it gains the right to serve and rotates before actually serving. The player that was “right front” is now in the “right back” position and will serve.
Authorizing a Serve - Rules of Volleyball The first referee authorizes the server to serve after have checked the teams are ready to play and the server is in possession of the volleyball.
Executing a Serve - Rules of Volleyball The volleyball shall be hit with one hand or any part of one arm after being tossed or released from one hand or both hands.
Only one toss or release of the volleyball is allowed. Dribble or moving the ball around is permitted.
At the moment of the serve contact, or takeoff for a jump serve, the server must not touch the court or the ground outside the service zone.
After the contact for serve, the player may step or land outside the service zone, or inside the court.
The entire “service action” must take place within the playing area.
USAV Rule The server must contact the ball within 8 seconds after the referee whistles for serve.
USAV Rule for 14 years and younger The server must contact the ball within 5 seconds after the referee whistles for serve. If the ball after being tossed or released by the server, lands without touching the player, it is considered a service tossing error. After the tossing error, the referee authorizes services again and the server must execute it within 5 seconds. One service tossing error is permitted for each service.
A serve executed before the referees whistle for serve is cancelled and repeated.
After the whistle for serve, no other actions requests for line-up check, time-out, substitution, etc.) may be considered until after the volleyball has been served and the rally completed. This is true even if a request has been made after a server has initiated service action and legally permitted the ball to fall to the floor.
A re-serve is considered part of a single effort to serve and must be completed before any requests may be considered.
Screening - Rules of Volleyball The players on the serving team must not prevent their opponent, through individual or collective screening, from seeing the server or the flight path of the volleyball.
A player or group of players on the serving team make a screen by waving their arms, jumping or moving sideways, or by standing grouped together to hide the flight path of the volleyball during the execution of the serve.
The factors to be weighed when judging whether a screen is being committed are…
-Relative position of the players on the serving team
-Path of the serve
-Speed of the serve
-Trajectory of the serve
If the players of the serving team are positioned close to each other, the serve passes over these players, is fast and has a low trajectory; the probability is greater that a screen has been committed.
The probability of a screen occurring is less if…
-Players of the serving team aren’t positioned closed to each other or are attempting to prevent a screen
-Path of the served ball is not over the players
-Speed of the serve is slow
-Trajectory of the serve is high
Service Faults - Rules of Volleyball The following are serving faults even if the opponent is out of position…
-The server violates the service order
-The server doesn’t execute the service properly
Faults After the Serve - Rules of Volleyball After the ball has been correctly contacted, the service becomes a fault (assuming there’s no position fault) if the ball…
-Touches a player of the serving team or fails to completely cross the vertical plane of the net through the crossing space
-Goes “out of play”
-Passes over a screen
Faults after Service and Positioning Faults - Rules of Volleyball If the server makes a fault at the moment of service contact, and the opponent is out of position, it is the serving fault which is sanctioned.
However, if the execution of service is done correctly, but the serve becomes faulty (ball goes out, volleyball goes over a screen, etc.) the positional fault has taken place first and is sanctioned.
Attack Hit - Rules of Volleyball
All actions which direct the volleyball toward the opponent, with the exception of a serve or block, are considered an attack hits.
During an attack hit, tipping the volleyball is permitted only if the ball is cleanly hit, not caught or thrown.
An attack hit is completed the moment it completely crosses the vertical plane of the net or is touched by an opponent.
Restrictions - Rules of Volleyball A front row player may complete an attack hit at any height, provide the contact is made within the players own playing space.
A back row player may complete an attack hit at any height from beyond the front zone…
-At the moment of takeoff, the players foot (or feet) can’t touch or cross over the attack line.
-After contact with the volleyball, the player may land in the front zone.
A back row player may also complete an attack hit from the front zone if at moment of contact with the volleyball, the “entire ball” isn’t higher than the top of the net.
No player is permitted to complete an attack hit on the opponents serve when the ball is in the front zone and the “entire ball” is higher than the top of the net.
Faults of the attack hit…
-A player hits the ball within the opponents playing space
-A player hits the ball “out of play”
-A back row player completes an attack hit from the front zone when at moment of contact with the ball; the “entire ball” is higher than the top of the net.
-A player completes an attack hit on the opponents serve when the ball is in the front zone and at the moment of contact the “entire ball” is higher than the top of the net.
-A libero completes an attack hit and at the moment of contact the “entire ball” is higher than the top of the net.
RULES OF VOLLEYBALL TIP:
Rules in volleyball allow the libero to attack from anywhere on the court as long as at the moment on contact the ball or part of the ball is below the top of the net.
-A player completes an attack hit and at the moment of contact the “entire ball” is higher than the top of the net when the ball is coming from an overhand finger pass by a libero that is in the front zone. In this situation, iff an attack hit fault is completed simultaneously with a blocking fault by the opponent, a double fault is committed.
Block - Rules of Volleyball
Blocking - Rules of Volleyball Blocking is the action of a player close to the net intercepting a volleyball coming from the opponent by reaching higher than the top of the net. Only front row players are permitted to complete a block.
A block attempt is the action of trying to block without touching the volleyball.
A block is completed whenever a volleyball is touched by a blocker.
A collective block is executed by 2 or 3 players close to each other and is completed when one of them touches the volleyball.
Consecutive contacts of the volleyball may be made by one or more blockers provided the contacts are during one action.
When blocking, a player may place hands beyond the net, provided this action doesn’t interfere with the opponents play. Thus, a blocker can’t touch a volleyball beyond the net until the attacker has executed the attack hit.
Blocking beyond the net is permitted provided…
-The block is made after the opponents have hit the volleyball in such a manner that the ball would clearly cross the net if not touched by a player and no member of the attacking team is in position to make a play on the volleyball.
-The ball is falling near the net and no member of the attacking team could make a play on the volleyball.
A block contact is not counted as a team contact. Therefore, after a block, a team is entitled to three contacts to return the volleyball.
The first team contact after a block may be executed by any player, include who touched the volleyball during the block.
Blocking an opponent’s serve is forbidden.
If a blocking fault is completed simultaneously with an opponents attack hit fault, a double fault is committed and the rally is replayed.
Blocking Faults - Rules of Volleyball The following are blocking faults…
-The blocker touches the ball in the opponents space either before or simultaneously with the opponents attack hit.
-A back row player or libero completes a block or participates in a collective block. Blocking the opponents serve.
-The ball is deflected “out of play” off a block.
-Blocking the ball in the opponents space outside the antennae.
P.E. - Volleyball Officials
Volleyball Officials
Volleyball officials that make up the officiating crew are:
first referee, second referee, scorekeeper, assistant scorer, and line judges.
The first referee is in charge from the beginning of the match until the end.
-The first referee has authority over all other members of the officiating crew.
-The first referee should talk to all the officiating crew members before the match starts, going over any questions officials might have about their responsibilities.
-The first referee should have a talk with the second referee before the match starts discussing issues such as pre-match protocol and anything that will help the match run more smoothly.
The second referee should establish a rapport with the scorekeeper and libero tracker. If the scorer and libero tracker have a problem or don’t understand something, they should be comfortable enough to ask the second referee for help.
Scorekeeper
The scorekeeper’s main job is to make sure the score is correct at all times. The scorekeeper uses a score sheet to keep track of the game.
If there is a difference between the score on the score sheet and the visual score (flip score, electronic scoreboard, etc.) the visual score should be changed to match the score on the scoresheet unless the mistake on the scoresheet can be determined and corrected.
One of the volleyball referees should check the accuracy of the scoresheet at the end of each set.
THE SCOREKEEPER…
Pre-match,
-Before the match starts, the scorekeeper should fill in the pre-match info – team names, starting line ups, etc.
During the match,
-Records points when they are scored
-Watches the servers and indicates immediately to the referees when a server has served out of order. It's also good preventive officiating to watch teams volleyball rotation in case assistance is needed for the second referee to determine the correct team alignment.
-Records player substitutions and team timeouts
-Records any sanctions
-Records all other events as instructed by the referees
-Records the final result of the set
-In the case of a protest, after the first referee gives authorization, the scorekeeper lets the game captain write a statement for protest on the scoresheet.
After the match,
-Records the final result of the match
-Signs the scoresheet
Assistant Scorer
-The assistant scorer (or libero tracker) sits at the scorer’s table next to the scorekeeper.
-The assistant scorer’s main function is to record libero replacements on to a libero tracking sheet.
THE ASSISTANT SCORER…
-Notifies any fault with libero replacements
-Operates the manual scoreboard on the scorer’s table
-Checks the score on the scoreboard with the score on the scoresheet
Line Judges
If only two line judges are used, they stand at the corner of the endline that is closest to the right hand of each referee, diagonally from the corner.
-The line judges watch the endline and sideline of their respective corners.
-For FIVB and Official Competitions, four line judges are used. Each line judge stands in the free zone 1 to 3 meters, lined up with the imaginary extension of their respective line.
-Line judge’s main responsibility is to make signals to help out the referees in making judgment calls.
-Line judges may be instructed to use flags to make the signals.
THE LINE JUDGES SIGNAL…
-Ball “in” and “out” whenever the ball lands near the lines
-Touches of “out” balls by players receiving the ball
-Ball touching the antennae
-A served ball crossing the net outside the crossing space (the space between the antennae’s)
-Any player standing off the court at the moment of service
-Server foot faults
Volleyball officials that make up the officiating crew are:
first referee, second referee, scorekeeper, assistant scorer, and line judges.
The first referee is in charge from the beginning of the match until the end.
-The first referee has authority over all other members of the officiating crew.
-The first referee should talk to all the officiating crew members before the match starts, going over any questions officials might have about their responsibilities.
-The first referee should have a talk with the second referee before the match starts discussing issues such as pre-match protocol and anything that will help the match run more smoothly.
The second referee should establish a rapport with the scorekeeper and libero tracker. If the scorer and libero tracker have a problem or don’t understand something, they should be comfortable enough to ask the second referee for help.
Scorekeeper
The scorekeeper’s main job is to make sure the score is correct at all times. The scorekeeper uses a score sheet to keep track of the game.
If there is a difference between the score on the score sheet and the visual score (flip score, electronic scoreboard, etc.) the visual score should be changed to match the score on the scoresheet unless the mistake on the scoresheet can be determined and corrected.
One of the volleyball referees should check the accuracy of the scoresheet at the end of each set.
THE SCOREKEEPER…
Pre-match,
-Before the match starts, the scorekeeper should fill in the pre-match info – team names, starting line ups, etc.
During the match,
-Records points when they are scored
-Watches the servers and indicates immediately to the referees when a server has served out of order. It's also good preventive officiating to watch teams volleyball rotation in case assistance is needed for the second referee to determine the correct team alignment.
-Records player substitutions and team timeouts
-Records any sanctions
-Records all other events as instructed by the referees
-Records the final result of the set
-In the case of a protest, after the first referee gives authorization, the scorekeeper lets the game captain write a statement for protest on the scoresheet.
After the match,
-Records the final result of the match
-Signs the scoresheet
Assistant Scorer
-The assistant scorer (or libero tracker) sits at the scorer’s table next to the scorekeeper.
-The assistant scorer’s main function is to record libero replacements on to a libero tracking sheet.
THE ASSISTANT SCORER…
-Notifies any fault with libero replacements
-Operates the manual scoreboard on the scorer’s table
-Checks the score on the scoreboard with the score on the scoresheet
Line Judges
If only two line judges are used, they stand at the corner of the endline that is closest to the right hand of each referee, diagonally from the corner.
-The line judges watch the endline and sideline of their respective corners.
-For FIVB and Official Competitions, four line judges are used. Each line judge stands in the free zone 1 to 3 meters, lined up with the imaginary extension of their respective line.
-Line judge’s main responsibility is to make signals to help out the referees in making judgment calls.
-Line judges may be instructed to use flags to make the signals.
THE LINE JUDGES SIGNAL…
-Ball “in” and “out” whenever the ball lands near the lines
-Touches of “out” balls by players receiving the ball
-Ball touching the antennae
-A served ball crossing the net outside the crossing space (the space between the antennae’s)
-Any player standing off the court at the moment of service
-Server foot faults
P.E. - History of Volleyball
History of Volleyball
On February 9, 1895, in Holyoke, Massachusetts (USA), William G. Morgan, a YMCA physical education director, created a new game called Mintonette as a pastime to be played preferably indoors and by any number of players. The game took some of its characteristics from tennis and handball. Another indoor sport, basketball, was catching on in the area, having been invented just ten miles (sixteen kilometers) away in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, only four years before. Mintonette was designed to be an indoor sport less rough than basketball for older members of the YMCA, while still requiring a bit of athletic effort.
The first rules, written down by William G Morgan, called for a net 6 ft 6 in (1.98 m) high, a 25×50 ft (7.6×15.2 m) court, and any number of players. A match was composed of nine innings with three serves for each team in each inning, and no limit to the number of ball contacts for each team before sending the ball to the opponents’ court. In case of a serving error, a second try was allowed. Hitting the ball into the net was considered a foul (with loss of the point or a side-out)—except in the case of the first-try serve.
After an observer, Alfred Halstead, noticed the volleying nature of the game at its first exhibition match in 1896, played at the International YMCA Training School (now called Springfield College), the game quickly became known as volleyball (it was originally spelled as two words: "volley ball"). Volleyball rules were slightly modified by the International YMCA Training School and the game spread around the country to various YMCAs.[2][3]
A TIMELINE OF SIGNIFICANT VOLLEYBALL EVENTS.
In 1900, a special ball was designed for the sport.
In 1916, in the Philippines, an offensive style of passing the ball in a high trajectory to be struck by another player (the set and spike) were introduced.
In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points.
In 1920, three hits per side and back row attack rules were instituted.
In 1922, the first YMCA national championships were held in Brooklyn, NY. 27 teams from 11 states were represented.
In 1928, it became clear that tournaments and rules were needed, the United States Volleyball Association (USVBA, now USA Volleyball) was formed. The first U.S. Open was staged, as the field was open to non-YMCA squads.
In 1930, the first two-man beach game was played.
In 1934, the approval and recognition of national volleyball referees.
In 1937, at the AAU convention in Boston, action was taken to recognize the U.S. Volleyball Association as the official national governing body in the U.S.
In 1947, the Federation Internationale De Volley-Ball (FIVB) was founded.
In 1948, the first two-man beach tournament was held.
In 1949, the initial World Championships were held in Prague, Czechoslovakia.
In 1964, Volleyball was introduced to the Olympic Games in Tokyo.
In 1965, the California Beach Volleyball Association (CBVA) was formed.
In 1974, the World Championships in Mexico were telecast in Japan.
In 1975, the US National Women’s team began a year-round training regime in Pasadena, Texas (moved to Colorado Springs in 1979, Coto de Caza and Fountain Valley, CA in 1980, and San Diego, CA in 1985).
In 1977, the US National Men’s team began a year-round training regime in Dayton, Ohio (moved to San Diego, CA in 1981).
In 1983, the Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) was formed.
In 1984, the US won their first medals at the Olympics in Los Angeles. The Men won the Gold, and the Women the Silver.
In 1986, the Women’s Professional Volleyball Association (WPVA) was formed.
In 1988, the US Men repeated the Gold in the Olympics in Korea.
In 1990, the World League was created.
In 1995, the sport of Volleyball was 100 years old!
In 1996, 2-person beach volleyball will be an Olympic Sport.
On February 9, 1895, in Holyoke, Massachusetts (USA), William G. Morgan, a YMCA physical education director, created a new game called Mintonette as a pastime to be played preferably indoors and by any number of players. The game took some of its characteristics from tennis and handball. Another indoor sport, basketball, was catching on in the area, having been invented just ten miles (sixteen kilometers) away in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, only four years before. Mintonette was designed to be an indoor sport less rough than basketball for older members of the YMCA, while still requiring a bit of athletic effort.
The first rules, written down by William G Morgan, called for a net 6 ft 6 in (1.98 m) high, a 25×50 ft (7.6×15.2 m) court, and any number of players. A match was composed of nine innings with three serves for each team in each inning, and no limit to the number of ball contacts for each team before sending the ball to the opponents’ court. In case of a serving error, a second try was allowed. Hitting the ball into the net was considered a foul (with loss of the point or a side-out)—except in the case of the first-try serve.
After an observer, Alfred Halstead, noticed the volleying nature of the game at its first exhibition match in 1896, played at the International YMCA Training School (now called Springfield College), the game quickly became known as volleyball (it was originally spelled as two words: "volley ball"). Volleyball rules were slightly modified by the International YMCA Training School and the game spread around the country to various YMCAs.[2][3]
A TIMELINE OF SIGNIFICANT VOLLEYBALL EVENTS.
In 1900, a special ball was designed for the sport.
In 1916, in the Philippines, an offensive style of passing the ball in a high trajectory to be struck by another player (the set and spike) were introduced.
In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points.
In 1920, three hits per side and back row attack rules were instituted.
In 1922, the first YMCA national championships were held in Brooklyn, NY. 27 teams from 11 states were represented.
In 1928, it became clear that tournaments and rules were needed, the United States Volleyball Association (USVBA, now USA Volleyball) was formed. The first U.S. Open was staged, as the field was open to non-YMCA squads.
In 1930, the first two-man beach game was played.
In 1934, the approval and recognition of national volleyball referees.
In 1937, at the AAU convention in Boston, action was taken to recognize the U.S. Volleyball Association as the official national governing body in the U.S.
In 1947, the Federation Internationale De Volley-Ball (FIVB) was founded.
In 1948, the first two-man beach tournament was held.
In 1949, the initial World Championships were held in Prague, Czechoslovakia.
In 1964, Volleyball was introduced to the Olympic Games in Tokyo.
In 1965, the California Beach Volleyball Association (CBVA) was formed.
In 1974, the World Championships in Mexico were telecast in Japan.
In 1975, the US National Women’s team began a year-round training regime in Pasadena, Texas (moved to Colorado Springs in 1979, Coto de Caza and Fountain Valley, CA in 1980, and San Diego, CA in 1985).
In 1977, the US National Men’s team began a year-round training regime in Dayton, Ohio (moved to San Diego, CA in 1981).
In 1983, the Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) was formed.
In 1984, the US won their first medals at the Olympics in Los Angeles. The Men won the Gold, and the Women the Silver.
In 1986, the Women’s Professional Volleyball Association (WPVA) was formed.
In 1988, the US Men repeated the Gold in the Olympics in Korea.
In 1990, the World League was created.
In 1995, the sport of Volleyball was 100 years old!
In 1996, 2-person beach volleyball will be an Olympic Sport.
History - The Philippine History
Philippine History
Early History -The Negritos are believed to have migrated to the Philippines some 30,000 years ago from Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaya. The Malayans followed in successive waves. These people belonged to a primitive epoch of Malayan culture, which has apparently survived to this day among certain groups such as the Igorots. The Malayan tribes that came later had more highly developed material cultures.
In the 14th cent. Arab traders from Malay and Borneo introduced Islam into the southern islands and extended their influence as far north as Luzon. The first Europeans to visit (1521) the Philippines were those in the Spanish expedition around the world led by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. Other Spanish expeditions followed, including one from New Spain (Mexico) under López de Villalobos, who in 1542 named the islands for the infante Philip, later Philip II.
Spanish Control - The conquest of the Filipinos by Spain did not begin in earnest until 1564, when another expedition from New Spain, commanded by Miguel López de Legaspi, arrived. Spanish leadership was soon established over many small independent communities that previously had known no central rule. By 1571, when López de Legaspi established the Spanish city of Manila on the site of a Moro town he had conquered the year before, the Spanish foothold in the Philippines was secure, despite the opposition of the Portuguese, who were eager to maintain their monopoly on the trade of East Asia.
Manila repulsed the attack of the Chinese pirate Limahong in 1574. For centuries before the Spanish arrived the Chinese had traded with the Filipinos, but evidently none had settled permanently in the islands until after the conquest. Chinese trade and labor were of great importance in the early development of the Spanish colony, but the Chinese came to be feared and hated because of their increasing numbers, and in 1603 the Spanish murdered thousands of them (later, there were lesser massacres of the Chinese).
The Spanish governor, made a viceroy in 1589, ruled with the advice of the powerful royal audiencia. There were frequent uprisings by the Filipinos, who resented the encomienda system. By the end of the 16th cent. Manila had become a leading commercial center of East Asia, carrying on a flourishing trade with China, India, and the East Indies. The Philippines supplied some wealth (including gold) to Spain, and the richly laden galleons plying between the islands and New Spain were often attacked by English freebooters. There was also trouble from other quarters, and the period from 1600 to 1663 was marked by continual wars with the Dutch, who were laying the foundations of their rich empire in the East Indies, and with Moro pirates. One of the most difficult problems the Spanish faced was the subjugation of the Moros. Intermittent campaigns were conducted against them but without conclusive results until the middle of the 19th cent. As the power of the Spanish Empire waned, the Jesuit orders became more influential in the Philippines and acquired great amounts of property.
Revolution, War, and U.S. Control - It was the opposition to the power of the clergy that in large measure brought about the rising sentiment for independence. Spanish injustices, bigotry, and economic oppressions fed the movement, which was greatly inspired by the brilliant writings of José Rizal. In 1896 revolution began in the province of Cavite, and after the execution of Rizal that December, it spread throughout the major islands. The Filipino leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, achieved considerable success before a peace was patched up with Spain. The peace was short-lived, however, for neither side honored its agreements, and a new revolution was brewing when the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898.
After the U.S. naval victory in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey supplied Aguinaldo with arms and urged him to rally the Filipinos against the Spanish. By the time U.S. land forces had arrived, the Filipinos had taken the entire island of Luzon, except for the old walled city of Manila, which they were besieging. The Filipinos had also declared their independence and established a republic under the first democratic constitution ever known in Asia. Their dreams of independence were crushed when the Philippines were transferred from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1898), which closed the Spanish-American War.
In Feb., 1899, Aguinaldo led a new revolt, this time against U.S. rule. Defeated on the battlefield, the Filipinos turned to guerrilla warfare, and their subjugation became a mammoth project for the United States—one that cost far more money and took far more lives than the Spanish-American War. The insurrection was effectively ended with the capture (1901) of Aguinaldo by Gen. Frederick Funston, but the question of Philippine independence remained a burning issue in the politics of both the United States and the islands. The matter was complicated by the growing economic ties between the two countries. Although comparatively little American capital was invested in island industries, U.S. trade bulked larger and larger until the Philippines became almost entirely dependent upon the American market. Free trade, established by an act of 1909, was expanded in 1913.
When the Democrats came into power in 1913, measures were taken to effect a smooth transition to self-rule. The Philippine assembly already had a popularly elected lower house, and the Jones Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1916, provided for a popularly elected upper house as well, with power to approve all appointments made by the governor-general. It also gave the islands their first definite pledge of independence, although no specific date was set.
When the Republicans regained power in 1921, the trend toward bringing Filipinos into the government was reversed. Gen. Leonard Wood, who was appointed governor-general, largely supplanted Filipino activities with a semimilitary rule. However, the advent of the Great Depression in the United States in the 1930s and the first aggressive moves by Japan in Asia (1931) shifted U.S. sentiment sharply toward the granting of immediate independence to the Philippines.
The Commonwealth - The Hare-Hawes Cutting Act, passed by Congress in 1932, provided for complete independence of the islands in 1945 after 10 years of self-government under U.S. supervision. The bill had been drawn up with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, but Manuel L. Quezon, the leader of the dominant Nationalist party, opposed it, partially because of its threat of American tariffs against Philippine products but principally because of the provisions leaving naval bases in U.S. hands. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill. The Tydings-McDuffie Independence Act (1934) closely resembled the Hare-Hawes Cutting Act, but struck the provisions for American bases and carried a promise of further study to correct “imperfections or inequalities.”
The Philippine legislature ratified the bill; a constitution, approved by President Roosevelt (Mar., 1935) was accepted by the Philippine people in a plebiscite (May); and Quezon was elected the first president (Sept.). When Quezon was inaugurated on Nov. 15, 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was formally established. Quezon was reelected in Nov., 1941. To develop defensive forces against possible aggression, Gen. Douglas MacArthur was brought to the islands as military adviser in 1935, and the following year he became field marshal of the Commonwealth army.
World War II - War came suddenly to the Philippines on Dec. 8 (Dec. 7, U.S. time), 1941, when Japan attacked without warning. Japanese troops invaded the islands in many places and launched a pincer drive on Manila. MacArthur’s scattered defending forces (about 80,000 troops, four fifths of them Filipinos) were forced to withdraw to Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor Island, where they entrenched and tried to hold until the arrival of reinforcements, meanwhile guarding the entrance to Manila Bay and denying that important harbor to the Japanese. But no reinforcements were forthcoming. The Japanese occupied Manila on Jan. 2, 1942. MacArthur was ordered out by President Roosevelt and left for Australia on Mar. 11; Lt. Gen. Jonathan Wainwright assumed command.
The besieged U.S.-Filipino army on Bataan finally crumbled on Apr. 9, 1942. Wainwright fought on from Corregidor with a garrison of about 11,000 men; he was overwhelmed on May 6, 1942. After his capitulation, the Japanese forced the surrender of all remaining defending units in the islands by threatening to use the captured Bataan and Corregidor troops as hostages. Many individual soldiers refused to surrender, however, and guerrilla resistance, organized and coordinated by U.S. and Philippine army officers, continued throughout the Japanese occupation.
Japan’s efforts to win Filipino loyalty found expression in the establishment (Oct. 14, 1943) of a “Philippine Republic,” with José P. Laurel, former supreme court justice, as president. But the people suffered greatly from Japanese brutality, and the puppet government gained little support. Meanwhile, President Quezon, who had escaped with other high officials before the country fell, set up a government-in-exile in Washington. When he died (Aug., 1944), Vice President Sergio Osmeña became president. Osmeña returned to the Philippines with the first liberation forces, which surprised the Japanese by landing (Oct. 20, 1944) at Leyte, in the heart of the islands, after months of U.S. air strikes against Mindanao. The Philippine government was established at Tacloban, Leyte, on Oct. 23.
The landing was followed (Oct. 23–26) by the greatest naval engagement in history, called variously the battle of Leyte Gulf and the second battle of the Philippine Sea. A great U.S. victory, it effectively destroyed the Japanese fleet and opened the way for the recovery of all the islands. Luzon was invaded (Jan., 1945), and Manila was taken in February. On July 5, 1945, MacArthur announced “All the Philippines are now liberated.” The Japanese had suffered over 425,000 dead in the Philippines.
The Philippine congress met on June 9, 1945, for the first time since its election in 1941. It faced enormous problems. The land was devastated by war, the economy destroyed, the country torn by political warfare and guerrilla violence. Osmeña’s leadership was challenged (Jan., 1946) when one wing (now the Liberal party) of the Nationalist party nominated for president Manuel Roxas, who defeated Osmeña in April.
The Republic of the Philippines - Manuel Roxas became the first president of the Republic of the Philippines when independence was granted, as scheduled, on July 4, 1946. In Mar., 1947, the Philippines and the United States signed a military assistance pact (since renewed) and the Philippines gave the United States a 99-year lease on designated military, naval, and air bases (a later agreement reduced the period to 25 years beginning 1967). The sudden death of President Roxas in Apr., 1948, elevated the vice president, Elpidio Quirino, to the presidency, and in a bitterly contested election in Nov., 1949, Quirino defeated José Laurel to win a four-year term of his own.
The enormous task of reconstructing the war-torn country was complicated by the activities in central Luzon of the Communist-dominated Hukbalahap guerrillas (Huks), who resorted to terror and violence in their efforts to achieve land reform and gain political power. They were finally brought under control (1954) after a vigorous attack launched by the minister of national defense, Ramón Magsaysay. By that time Magsaysay was president of the country, having defeated Quirino in Nov., 1953. He had promised sweeping economic changes, and he did make progress in land reform, opening new settlements outside crowded Luzon island. His death in an airplane crash in Mar., 1957, was a serious blow to national morale. Vice President Carlos P. García succeeded him and won a full term as president in the elections of Nov., 1957.
In foreign affairs, the Philippines maintained a firm anti-Communist policy and joined the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization in 1954. There were difficulties with the United States over American military installations in the islands, and, despite formal recognition (1956) of full Philippine sovereignty over these bases, tensions increased until some of the bases were dismantled (1959) and the 99-year lease period was reduced. The United States rejected Philippine financial claims and proposed trade revisions.
Philippine opposition to García on issues of government corruption and anti-Americanism led, in June, 1959, to the union of the Liberal and Progressive parties, led by Vice President Diosdado Macapagal, the Liberal party leader, who succeeded García as president in the 1961 elections. Macapagal’s administration was marked by efforts to combat the mounting inflation that had plagued the republic since its birth; by attempted alliances with neighboring countries; and by a territorial dispute with Britain over North Borneo (later Sabah), which Macapagal claimed had been leased and not sold to the British North Borneo Company in 1878.
Marcos and After - Ferdinand E. Marcos, who succeeded to the presidency after defeating Macapagal in the 1965 elections, inherited the territorial dispute over Sabah; in 1968 he approved a congressional bill annexing Sabah to the Philippines. Malaysia suspended diplomatic relations (Sabah had joined the Federation of Malaysia in 1963), and the matter was referred to the United Nations. (The Philippines dropped its claim to Sabah in 1978.) The Philippines became one of the founding countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. The continuing need for land reform fostered a new Huk uprising in central Luzon, accompanied by mounting assassinations and acts of terror, and in 1969, Marcos began a major military campaign to subdue them. Civil war also threatened on Mindanao, where groups of Moros opposed Christian settlement. In Nov., 1969, Marcos won an unprecedented reelection, easily defeating Sergio Osmeña, Jr., but the election was accompanied by violence and charges of fraud, and Marcos’s second term began with increasing civil disorder.
In Jan., 1970, some 2,000 demonstrators tried to storm Malacañang Palace, the presidential residence; riots erupted against the U.S. embassy. When Pope Paul VI visited Manila in Nov., 1970, an attempt was made on his life. In 1971, at a Liberal party rally, hand grenades were thrown at the speakers’ platform, and several people were killed. President Marcos declared martial law in Sept., 1972, charging that a Communist rebellion threatened. The 1935 constitution was replaced (1973) by a new one that provided the president with direct powers. A plebiscite (July, 1973) gave Marcos the right to remain in office beyond the expiration (Dec., 1973) of his term. Meanwhile the fighting on Mindanao had spread to the Sulu Archipelago. By 1973 some 3,000 people had been killed and hundreds of villages burned. Throughout the 1970s poverty and governmental corruption increased, and Imelda Marcos, Ferdinand’s wife, became more influential.
Martial law remained in force until 1981, when Marcos was reelected, amid accusations of electoral fraud. On Aug. 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino was assassinated at Manila airport, which incited a new, more powerful wave of anti-Marcos dissent. After the Feb., 1986, presidential election, both Marcos and his opponent, Corazon Aquino (the widow of Benigno), declared themselves the winner, and charges of massive fraud and violence were leveled against the Marcos faction. Marcos’s domestic and international support eroded, and he fled the country on Feb. 25, 1986, eventually obtaining asylum in the United States.
Aquino’s government faced mounting problems, including coup attempts, significant economic difficulties, and pressure to rid the Philippines of the U.S. military presence (the last U.S. bases were evacuated in 1992). In 1990, in response to the demands of the Moros, a partially autonomous Muslim region was created in the far south. In 1992, Aquino declined to run for reelection and was succeeded by her former army chief of staff Fidel Ramos. He immediately launched an economic revitalization plan premised on three policies: government deregulation, increased private investment, and political solutions to the continuing insurgencies within the country. His political program was somewhat successful, opening dialogues with the Marxist and Muslim guerillas. However, Muslim discontent with partial rule persisted, and unrest and violence continued throughout the 1990s. In 1999, Marxist rebels and Muslim separatists formed an alliance to fight the government.
Several natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo on Luzon and a succession of severe typhoons, slowed the country’s economic progress. However, the Philippines escaped much of the economic turmoil seen in other East Asian nations in 1997 and 1998, in part by following a slower pace of development imposed by the International Monetary Fund. Joseph Marcelo Estrada, a former movie actor, was elected president in 1998, pledging to help the poor and develop the country’s agricultural sector. In 1999 he announced plans to amend the constitution in order to remove protectionist provisions and attract more foreign investment.
Late in 2000, Estrada’s presidency was buffeted by charges that he accepted millions of dollars in payoffs from illegal gambling operations. Although his support among the poor Filipino majority remained strong, many political, business, and church leaders called for him to resign. In Nov., 2000, Estrada was impeached by the house of representatives on charges of graft, but the senate, controlled by Estrada’s allies, provoked a crisis (Jan., 2001) when it rejected examining the president’s bank records. As demonstrations against Estrada mounted and members of his cabinet resigned, the supreme court stripped him of the presidency, and Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was sworn in as Estrada’s successor.
Macapagal-Arroyo was elected president in her own right in May, 2004, but the balloting was marred by violence and irregularities as well as a tedious vote-counting process that was completed six weeks after the election.
Source: The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05.
Early History -The Negritos are believed to have migrated to the Philippines some 30,000 years ago from Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaya. The Malayans followed in successive waves. These people belonged to a primitive epoch of Malayan culture, which has apparently survived to this day among certain groups such as the Igorots. The Malayan tribes that came later had more highly developed material cultures.
In the 14th cent. Arab traders from Malay and Borneo introduced Islam into the southern islands and extended their influence as far north as Luzon. The first Europeans to visit (1521) the Philippines were those in the Spanish expedition around the world led by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. Other Spanish expeditions followed, including one from New Spain (Mexico) under López de Villalobos, who in 1542 named the islands for the infante Philip, later Philip II.
Spanish Control - The conquest of the Filipinos by Spain did not begin in earnest until 1564, when another expedition from New Spain, commanded by Miguel López de Legaspi, arrived. Spanish leadership was soon established over many small independent communities that previously had known no central rule. By 1571, when López de Legaspi established the Spanish city of Manila on the site of a Moro town he had conquered the year before, the Spanish foothold in the Philippines was secure, despite the opposition of the Portuguese, who were eager to maintain their monopoly on the trade of East Asia.
Manila repulsed the attack of the Chinese pirate Limahong in 1574. For centuries before the Spanish arrived the Chinese had traded with the Filipinos, but evidently none had settled permanently in the islands until after the conquest. Chinese trade and labor were of great importance in the early development of the Spanish colony, but the Chinese came to be feared and hated because of their increasing numbers, and in 1603 the Spanish murdered thousands of them (later, there were lesser massacres of the Chinese).
The Spanish governor, made a viceroy in 1589, ruled with the advice of the powerful royal audiencia. There were frequent uprisings by the Filipinos, who resented the encomienda system. By the end of the 16th cent. Manila had become a leading commercial center of East Asia, carrying on a flourishing trade with China, India, and the East Indies. The Philippines supplied some wealth (including gold) to Spain, and the richly laden galleons plying between the islands and New Spain were often attacked by English freebooters. There was also trouble from other quarters, and the period from 1600 to 1663 was marked by continual wars with the Dutch, who were laying the foundations of their rich empire in the East Indies, and with Moro pirates. One of the most difficult problems the Spanish faced was the subjugation of the Moros. Intermittent campaigns were conducted against them but without conclusive results until the middle of the 19th cent. As the power of the Spanish Empire waned, the Jesuit orders became more influential in the Philippines and acquired great amounts of property.
Revolution, War, and U.S. Control - It was the opposition to the power of the clergy that in large measure brought about the rising sentiment for independence. Spanish injustices, bigotry, and economic oppressions fed the movement, which was greatly inspired by the brilliant writings of José Rizal. In 1896 revolution began in the province of Cavite, and after the execution of Rizal that December, it spread throughout the major islands. The Filipino leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, achieved considerable success before a peace was patched up with Spain. The peace was short-lived, however, for neither side honored its agreements, and a new revolution was brewing when the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898.
After the U.S. naval victory in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey supplied Aguinaldo with arms and urged him to rally the Filipinos against the Spanish. By the time U.S. land forces had arrived, the Filipinos had taken the entire island of Luzon, except for the old walled city of Manila, which they were besieging. The Filipinos had also declared their independence and established a republic under the first democratic constitution ever known in Asia. Their dreams of independence were crushed when the Philippines were transferred from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1898), which closed the Spanish-American War.
In Feb., 1899, Aguinaldo led a new revolt, this time against U.S. rule. Defeated on the battlefield, the Filipinos turned to guerrilla warfare, and their subjugation became a mammoth project for the United States—one that cost far more money and took far more lives than the Spanish-American War. The insurrection was effectively ended with the capture (1901) of Aguinaldo by Gen. Frederick Funston, but the question of Philippine independence remained a burning issue in the politics of both the United States and the islands. The matter was complicated by the growing economic ties between the two countries. Although comparatively little American capital was invested in island industries, U.S. trade bulked larger and larger until the Philippines became almost entirely dependent upon the American market. Free trade, established by an act of 1909, was expanded in 1913.
When the Democrats came into power in 1913, measures were taken to effect a smooth transition to self-rule. The Philippine assembly already had a popularly elected lower house, and the Jones Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1916, provided for a popularly elected upper house as well, with power to approve all appointments made by the governor-general. It also gave the islands their first definite pledge of independence, although no specific date was set.
When the Republicans regained power in 1921, the trend toward bringing Filipinos into the government was reversed. Gen. Leonard Wood, who was appointed governor-general, largely supplanted Filipino activities with a semimilitary rule. However, the advent of the Great Depression in the United States in the 1930s and the first aggressive moves by Japan in Asia (1931) shifted U.S. sentiment sharply toward the granting of immediate independence to the Philippines.
The Commonwealth - The Hare-Hawes Cutting Act, passed by Congress in 1932, provided for complete independence of the islands in 1945 after 10 years of self-government under U.S. supervision. The bill had been drawn up with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, but Manuel L. Quezon, the leader of the dominant Nationalist party, opposed it, partially because of its threat of American tariffs against Philippine products but principally because of the provisions leaving naval bases in U.S. hands. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill. The Tydings-McDuffie Independence Act (1934) closely resembled the Hare-Hawes Cutting Act, but struck the provisions for American bases and carried a promise of further study to correct “imperfections or inequalities.”
The Philippine legislature ratified the bill; a constitution, approved by President Roosevelt (Mar., 1935) was accepted by the Philippine people in a plebiscite (May); and Quezon was elected the first president (Sept.). When Quezon was inaugurated on Nov. 15, 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was formally established. Quezon was reelected in Nov., 1941. To develop defensive forces against possible aggression, Gen. Douglas MacArthur was brought to the islands as military adviser in 1935, and the following year he became field marshal of the Commonwealth army.
World War II - War came suddenly to the Philippines on Dec. 8 (Dec. 7, U.S. time), 1941, when Japan attacked without warning. Japanese troops invaded the islands in many places and launched a pincer drive on Manila. MacArthur’s scattered defending forces (about 80,000 troops, four fifths of them Filipinos) were forced to withdraw to Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor Island, where they entrenched and tried to hold until the arrival of reinforcements, meanwhile guarding the entrance to Manila Bay and denying that important harbor to the Japanese. But no reinforcements were forthcoming. The Japanese occupied Manila on Jan. 2, 1942. MacArthur was ordered out by President Roosevelt and left for Australia on Mar. 11; Lt. Gen. Jonathan Wainwright assumed command.
The besieged U.S.-Filipino army on Bataan finally crumbled on Apr. 9, 1942. Wainwright fought on from Corregidor with a garrison of about 11,000 men; he was overwhelmed on May 6, 1942. After his capitulation, the Japanese forced the surrender of all remaining defending units in the islands by threatening to use the captured Bataan and Corregidor troops as hostages. Many individual soldiers refused to surrender, however, and guerrilla resistance, organized and coordinated by U.S. and Philippine army officers, continued throughout the Japanese occupation.
Japan’s efforts to win Filipino loyalty found expression in the establishment (Oct. 14, 1943) of a “Philippine Republic,” with José P. Laurel, former supreme court justice, as president. But the people suffered greatly from Japanese brutality, and the puppet government gained little support. Meanwhile, President Quezon, who had escaped with other high officials before the country fell, set up a government-in-exile in Washington. When he died (Aug., 1944), Vice President Sergio Osmeña became president. Osmeña returned to the Philippines with the first liberation forces, which surprised the Japanese by landing (Oct. 20, 1944) at Leyte, in the heart of the islands, after months of U.S. air strikes against Mindanao. The Philippine government was established at Tacloban, Leyte, on Oct. 23.
The landing was followed (Oct. 23–26) by the greatest naval engagement in history, called variously the battle of Leyte Gulf and the second battle of the Philippine Sea. A great U.S. victory, it effectively destroyed the Japanese fleet and opened the way for the recovery of all the islands. Luzon was invaded (Jan., 1945), and Manila was taken in February. On July 5, 1945, MacArthur announced “All the Philippines are now liberated.” The Japanese had suffered over 425,000 dead in the Philippines.
The Philippine congress met on June 9, 1945, for the first time since its election in 1941. It faced enormous problems. The land was devastated by war, the economy destroyed, the country torn by political warfare and guerrilla violence. Osmeña’s leadership was challenged (Jan., 1946) when one wing (now the Liberal party) of the Nationalist party nominated for president Manuel Roxas, who defeated Osmeña in April.
The Republic of the Philippines - Manuel Roxas became the first president of the Republic of the Philippines when independence was granted, as scheduled, on July 4, 1946. In Mar., 1947, the Philippines and the United States signed a military assistance pact (since renewed) and the Philippines gave the United States a 99-year lease on designated military, naval, and air bases (a later agreement reduced the period to 25 years beginning 1967). The sudden death of President Roxas in Apr., 1948, elevated the vice president, Elpidio Quirino, to the presidency, and in a bitterly contested election in Nov., 1949, Quirino defeated José Laurel to win a four-year term of his own.
The enormous task of reconstructing the war-torn country was complicated by the activities in central Luzon of the Communist-dominated Hukbalahap guerrillas (Huks), who resorted to terror and violence in their efforts to achieve land reform and gain political power. They were finally brought under control (1954) after a vigorous attack launched by the minister of national defense, Ramón Magsaysay. By that time Magsaysay was president of the country, having defeated Quirino in Nov., 1953. He had promised sweeping economic changes, and he did make progress in land reform, opening new settlements outside crowded Luzon island. His death in an airplane crash in Mar., 1957, was a serious blow to national morale. Vice President Carlos P. García succeeded him and won a full term as president in the elections of Nov., 1957.
In foreign affairs, the Philippines maintained a firm anti-Communist policy and joined the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization in 1954. There were difficulties with the United States over American military installations in the islands, and, despite formal recognition (1956) of full Philippine sovereignty over these bases, tensions increased until some of the bases were dismantled (1959) and the 99-year lease period was reduced. The United States rejected Philippine financial claims and proposed trade revisions.
Philippine opposition to García on issues of government corruption and anti-Americanism led, in June, 1959, to the union of the Liberal and Progressive parties, led by Vice President Diosdado Macapagal, the Liberal party leader, who succeeded García as president in the 1961 elections. Macapagal’s administration was marked by efforts to combat the mounting inflation that had plagued the republic since its birth; by attempted alliances with neighboring countries; and by a territorial dispute with Britain over North Borneo (later Sabah), which Macapagal claimed had been leased and not sold to the British North Borneo Company in 1878.
Marcos and After - Ferdinand E. Marcos, who succeeded to the presidency after defeating Macapagal in the 1965 elections, inherited the territorial dispute over Sabah; in 1968 he approved a congressional bill annexing Sabah to the Philippines. Malaysia suspended diplomatic relations (Sabah had joined the Federation of Malaysia in 1963), and the matter was referred to the United Nations. (The Philippines dropped its claim to Sabah in 1978.) The Philippines became one of the founding countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. The continuing need for land reform fostered a new Huk uprising in central Luzon, accompanied by mounting assassinations and acts of terror, and in 1969, Marcos began a major military campaign to subdue them. Civil war also threatened on Mindanao, where groups of Moros opposed Christian settlement. In Nov., 1969, Marcos won an unprecedented reelection, easily defeating Sergio Osmeña, Jr., but the election was accompanied by violence and charges of fraud, and Marcos’s second term began with increasing civil disorder.
In Jan., 1970, some 2,000 demonstrators tried to storm Malacañang Palace, the presidential residence; riots erupted against the U.S. embassy. When Pope Paul VI visited Manila in Nov., 1970, an attempt was made on his life. In 1971, at a Liberal party rally, hand grenades were thrown at the speakers’ platform, and several people were killed. President Marcos declared martial law in Sept., 1972, charging that a Communist rebellion threatened. The 1935 constitution was replaced (1973) by a new one that provided the president with direct powers. A plebiscite (July, 1973) gave Marcos the right to remain in office beyond the expiration (Dec., 1973) of his term. Meanwhile the fighting on Mindanao had spread to the Sulu Archipelago. By 1973 some 3,000 people had been killed and hundreds of villages burned. Throughout the 1970s poverty and governmental corruption increased, and Imelda Marcos, Ferdinand’s wife, became more influential.
Martial law remained in force until 1981, when Marcos was reelected, amid accusations of electoral fraud. On Aug. 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino was assassinated at Manila airport, which incited a new, more powerful wave of anti-Marcos dissent. After the Feb., 1986, presidential election, both Marcos and his opponent, Corazon Aquino (the widow of Benigno), declared themselves the winner, and charges of massive fraud and violence were leveled against the Marcos faction. Marcos’s domestic and international support eroded, and he fled the country on Feb. 25, 1986, eventually obtaining asylum in the United States.
Aquino’s government faced mounting problems, including coup attempts, significant economic difficulties, and pressure to rid the Philippines of the U.S. military presence (the last U.S. bases were evacuated in 1992). In 1990, in response to the demands of the Moros, a partially autonomous Muslim region was created in the far south. In 1992, Aquino declined to run for reelection and was succeeded by her former army chief of staff Fidel Ramos. He immediately launched an economic revitalization plan premised on three policies: government deregulation, increased private investment, and political solutions to the continuing insurgencies within the country. His political program was somewhat successful, opening dialogues with the Marxist and Muslim guerillas. However, Muslim discontent with partial rule persisted, and unrest and violence continued throughout the 1990s. In 1999, Marxist rebels and Muslim separatists formed an alliance to fight the government.
Several natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo on Luzon and a succession of severe typhoons, slowed the country’s economic progress. However, the Philippines escaped much of the economic turmoil seen in other East Asian nations in 1997 and 1998, in part by following a slower pace of development imposed by the International Monetary Fund. Joseph Marcelo Estrada, a former movie actor, was elected president in 1998, pledging to help the poor and develop the country’s agricultural sector. In 1999 he announced plans to amend the constitution in order to remove protectionist provisions and attract more foreign investment.
Late in 2000, Estrada’s presidency was buffeted by charges that he accepted millions of dollars in payoffs from illegal gambling operations. Although his support among the poor Filipino majority remained strong, many political, business, and church leaders called for him to resign. In Nov., 2000, Estrada was impeached by the house of representatives on charges of graft, but the senate, controlled by Estrada’s allies, provoked a crisis (Jan., 2001) when it rejected examining the president’s bank records. As demonstrations against Estrada mounted and members of his cabinet resigned, the supreme court stripped him of the presidency, and Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was sworn in as Estrada’s successor.
Macapagal-Arroyo was elected president in her own right in May, 2004, but the balloting was marred by violence and irregularities as well as a tedious vote-counting process that was completed six weeks after the election.
Source: The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05.
Wednesday, November 3, 2010
Literature - Africa's Plea by Roland Tombekai Dempster
AFRICA’S PLEA
Roland Tombekai Dempster
I am not you –
But you will not
Give me a chance,
Will not let me be me.
“If I were you”
but you know
I am not you,
Yet you will not
Let me be me.
You meddle, interfere
In my affairs
As if they were yours
And you were me.
You are unfair, unwise,
Foolish to think
That I can be you,
Talk, act
And think like you.
God made me me.
He made you you.
For God’s sake
Let me be me.
Roland Tombekai Dempster
I am not you –
But you will not
Give me a chance,
Will not let me be me.
“If I were you”
but you know
I am not you,
Yet you will not
Let me be me.
You meddle, interfere
In my affairs
As if they were yours
And you were me.
You are unfair, unwise,
Foolish to think
That I can be you,
Talk, act
And think like you.
God made me me.
He made you you.
For God’s sake
Let me be me.
Literature - Ramayana (summary)
Ramayana
The Ramayana is one of the two great Indian epics,the other being the Mahabharata. The Ramayana tells about life in India around 1000 BCE and offers models in dharma. The hero, Rama, lived his whole life by the rules of dharma; in fact, that was why Indian consider him heroic. When Rama was a young boy, he was the perfect son. Later he was an ideal husband to his faithful wife, Sita, and a responsible ruler of Aydohya. "Be as Rama," young Indians have been taught for 2,000 years; "Be as Sita."
The original Ramayana was a 24,000 couplet-long epic poem attributed to the Sanskrit poet Valmiki. Oral versions of Rama's story circulated for centuries, and the epic was probably first written down sometime around the start of the Common Era. It has since been told, retold, translated and transcreated throughout South and Southeast Asia, and the Ramayana continues to be performed in dance, drama, puppet shows, songs and movies all across Asia.
From childhood most Indians learn the characters and incidents of these epics and they furnish the ideals and wisdom of common life. The epics help to bind together the many peoples of India, transcending caste, distance and language. Two all-Indian holidays celebrate events in the Ramayana. Dussehra, a fourteen-day festival in October, commemorates the siege of Lanka and Rama's victory over Ravana, the demon king of Lanka. Divali, the October-November festival of Lights, celebrates Rama and Sita's return home to their kingdom of Ayodhya
Prince Rama was the eldest of four sons and was to become king when his father retired from ruling. His stepmother, however, wanted to see her son Bharata, Rama's younger brother, become king. Remembering that the king had once promised to grant her any two wishes she desired, she demanded that Rama be banished and Bharata be crowned. The king had to keep his word to his wife and ordered Rama's banishment. Rama accepted the decree unquestioningly. "I gladly obey father's command," he said to his stepmother. "Why, I would go even if you ordered it."
When Sita, Rama's wife, heard Rama was to be banished, she begged to accompany him to his forest retreat. "As shadow to substance, so wife to husband," she reminded Rama. "Is not the wife's dharma to be at her husband's side? Let me walk ahead of you so that I may smooth the path for your feet," she pleaded. Rama agreed, and Rama, Sita and his brother Lakshmana all went to the forest.
When Bharata learned what his mother had done, he sought Rama in the forest. "The eldest must rule," he reminded Rama. "Please come back and claim your rightful place as king." Rama refused to go against his father's command, so Bharata took his brother's sandals and said, "I shall place these sandals on the throne as symbols of your authority. I shall rule only as regent in your place, and each day I shall put my offerings at the feet of my Lord. When the fourteen years of banishment are over, I shall joyously return the kingdom to you." Rama was very impressed with Bharata's selflessness. As Bharata left, Rama said to him, "I should have known that you would renounce gladly what most men work lifetimes to learn to give up."
Later in the story, Ravana, the evil King of Lanka, (what is probably present-day Sri Lanka) abducted Sita. Rama mustered the aid of a money army, built a causeway across to Lanka, released Sita and brought her safely back to Aydohya. In order to set a good example, however, Rama demanded that Sita prove her purity before he could take her back as his wife. Rama, Sita and Bharata are all examples of persons following their dharma.
This lesson focuses on how the Ramayana teaches Indians to perform their dharma. Encourage students to pick out examples of characters in the epic who were faithful to their dharma and those who violated their dharma. Mahatma Gandhi dreamed that one day modern India would become a Ram-rajya.
Main Characters of the Ramayana
Dasaratha -- King of Ayodhya (capital of Kosala), whose eldest son was Rama. Dasaratha had three wives and four sons -- Rama, Bharata, and the twins Lakshmana and Satrughna.
Rama -- Dasaratha's first-born son, and the upholder of Dharma (correct conduct and duty). Rama, along with his wife Sita, have served as role models for thousands of generations in India and elsewhere. Rama is regarded by many Hindus as an incarnation of the god Vishnu.
Sita -- Rama's wife, the adopted daughter of King Janak. Sita was found in the furrows of a sacred field, and was regarded by the people of Janak's kingdom as a blessed child.
Bharata -- Rama's brother by Queen Kaikeyi. When Bharata learned of his mother's scheme to banish Rama and place him on the throne, he put Rama's sandals on the throne and ruled Ayodhya in his name.
Hanuman -- A leader of the monkey tribe allied with Rama against Ravana. Hanuman has many magical powers because his father was the god of the wind. Hanuman's devotion to Rama, and his supernatural feats in the battle to recapture Sita, has made him one of the most popular characters in the Ramayana.
Ravana -- The 10-headed king of Lanka who abducted Sita.
Kaushlaya -- Dasaratha's first wife, and the mother of Rama.
Lakshmana -- Rama's younger brother by Dasaratha's third wife, Sumitra. When Rama and Sita were exiled to the forest, Lakshmana followed in order to serve.
Ramayana: A Summary
1. Dasharatha, King of Aydohya, has three wives and four sons. Rama is the eldest. His mother is Kaushalya. Bharata is the son of his second and favorite wife, Queen Kaikeyi. The other two are twins, Lakshman and Shatrughna. Rama and Bharata are blue, perhaps indicating they were dark skinned or originally south Indian deities.
2) A sage takes the boys out to train them in archery. Rama has hit an apple hanging from a string.
3) In a neighboring city the ruler's daughter is named Sita. When it was time for Sita to choose her bridegroom, at a ceremony called a swayamvara, the princes were asked to string a giant bow. No one else can even lift the bow, but as Rama bends it, he not only strings it but breaks it in two. Sita indicates she has chosen Rama as her husband by putting a garland around his neck. The disappointed suitors watch.
4) King Dasharatha, Rama's father, decides it is time to give his throne to his eldest son Rama and retire to the forest to seek moksha. Everyone seems pleased. This plan fulfills the rules of dharma because an eldest son should rule and, if a son can take over one's responsibilities, one's last years may be spent in a search for moksha. In addition, everyone loves Rama. However Rama's step-mother, the king's second wife, is not pleased. She wants her son, Bharata, to rule. Because of an oath Dasharatha had made to her years before, she gets the king to agree to banish Rama for fourteen years and to crown Bharata, even though the king, on bended knee, begs her not to demand such things. Broken-hearted, the devastated king cannot face Rama with the news and Kaikeyi must tell him.
5) Rama, always obedient, is as content to go into banishment in the forest as to be crowned king. Sita convinces Rama that she belongs at his side and his brother Lakshman also begs to accompany them. Rama, Sita and Lakshman set out for the forest.
Bharata, whose mother's evil plot has won him the throne, is very upset when he finds out what has happened. Not for a moment does he consider breaking the rules of dharma and becoming king in Rama's place. He goes to Rama's forest retreat and begs Rama to return and rule, but Rama refuses. "We must obey father," Rama says. Bharata then takes Rama's sandals saying, "I will put these on the throne, and every day I shall place the fruits of my work at the feet on my Lord." Embracing Rama, he takes the sandals and returns to Aydohya.
6) Years pass and Rama, Sita and Lakshman are very happy in the forest. Rama and Lakshman destroy the rakshasas (evil creatures) who disturb the sages in their meditations. One day a rakshasa princess tries to seduce Rama, and Lakshmana wounds her and drives her away. She returns to her brother Ravana, the ten-headed ruler of Lanka (Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon), and tells her brother (who has a weakness for beautiful women) about lovely Sita.
Ravana devises a plan to abduct Sita. He sends a magical golden deer which Sita desires. Rama and Lakshman go off to hunt the deer, first drawing a protective circle around Sita and warning her she will be safe as long as she does not step outside the circle. As they go off, Ravana (who can change his shape) appears as a holy man begging alms. The moment Sita steps outside the circle to give him food, Ravana grabs her and carries her off the his kingdom in Lanka.
7) Rama is broken-hearted when he returns to the empty hut and cannot find Sita. A band of monkeys offer to help him find Sita.
Ravana has carried Sita to his palace in Lanka, but he cannot force her to be his wife so he puts her in a grove and alternately sweet-talks her and threatens her in an attempt to get her to agree to marry him. Sita will not even look at him but thinks only of her beloved Rama. Hanuman, the general of the monkey band can fly since his father is the wind, and Hanuman flies to Lanka and, finding Sita in the grove, comforts her and tells her Rama will soon come and save her.
8) Ravana's men capture Hanuman, and Ravana orders them to wrap Hanuman's tail in cloth and to set it on fire. With his tail burning, Hanuman hops from house-top to house-top, setting Lanka afire. He then flies back to Rama to tell him where Sita is.
9) Rama, Lakshman and the monkey army build a causeway from the tip of India to Lanka and cross over to Lanka. A might battle ensues. Rama kills several of Ravana's brothers and then
Rama confronts ten-headed Ravana. (Ravana is known for his wisdom as well as for his weakness for women which may explain why he is pictured as very brainy.) Rama finally kills Ravana.
10). Rama frees Sita. After Sita proves here purity, they return to Ayodhya and Rama becomes king. His rule, Ram-rajya, is an ideal time when everyone does his or her dharma and "fathers never have to light the funeral pyres for their sons."
The Ramayana is one of the two great Indian epics,the other being the Mahabharata. The Ramayana tells about life in India around 1000 BCE and offers models in dharma. The hero, Rama, lived his whole life by the rules of dharma; in fact, that was why Indian consider him heroic. When Rama was a young boy, he was the perfect son. Later he was an ideal husband to his faithful wife, Sita, and a responsible ruler of Aydohya. "Be as Rama," young Indians have been taught for 2,000 years; "Be as Sita."
The original Ramayana was a 24,000 couplet-long epic poem attributed to the Sanskrit poet Valmiki. Oral versions of Rama's story circulated for centuries, and the epic was probably first written down sometime around the start of the Common Era. It has since been told, retold, translated and transcreated throughout South and Southeast Asia, and the Ramayana continues to be performed in dance, drama, puppet shows, songs and movies all across Asia.
From childhood most Indians learn the characters and incidents of these epics and they furnish the ideals and wisdom of common life. The epics help to bind together the many peoples of India, transcending caste, distance and language. Two all-Indian holidays celebrate events in the Ramayana. Dussehra, a fourteen-day festival in October, commemorates the siege of Lanka and Rama's victory over Ravana, the demon king of Lanka. Divali, the October-November festival of Lights, celebrates Rama and Sita's return home to their kingdom of Ayodhya
Prince Rama was the eldest of four sons and was to become king when his father retired from ruling. His stepmother, however, wanted to see her son Bharata, Rama's younger brother, become king. Remembering that the king had once promised to grant her any two wishes she desired, she demanded that Rama be banished and Bharata be crowned. The king had to keep his word to his wife and ordered Rama's banishment. Rama accepted the decree unquestioningly. "I gladly obey father's command," he said to his stepmother. "Why, I would go even if you ordered it."
When Sita, Rama's wife, heard Rama was to be banished, she begged to accompany him to his forest retreat. "As shadow to substance, so wife to husband," she reminded Rama. "Is not the wife's dharma to be at her husband's side? Let me walk ahead of you so that I may smooth the path for your feet," she pleaded. Rama agreed, and Rama, Sita and his brother Lakshmana all went to the forest.
When Bharata learned what his mother had done, he sought Rama in the forest. "The eldest must rule," he reminded Rama. "Please come back and claim your rightful place as king." Rama refused to go against his father's command, so Bharata took his brother's sandals and said, "I shall place these sandals on the throne as symbols of your authority. I shall rule only as regent in your place, and each day I shall put my offerings at the feet of my Lord. When the fourteen years of banishment are over, I shall joyously return the kingdom to you." Rama was very impressed with Bharata's selflessness. As Bharata left, Rama said to him, "I should have known that you would renounce gladly what most men work lifetimes to learn to give up."
Later in the story, Ravana, the evil King of Lanka, (what is probably present-day Sri Lanka) abducted Sita. Rama mustered the aid of a money army, built a causeway across to Lanka, released Sita and brought her safely back to Aydohya. In order to set a good example, however, Rama demanded that Sita prove her purity before he could take her back as his wife. Rama, Sita and Bharata are all examples of persons following their dharma.
This lesson focuses on how the Ramayana teaches Indians to perform their dharma. Encourage students to pick out examples of characters in the epic who were faithful to their dharma and those who violated their dharma. Mahatma Gandhi dreamed that one day modern India would become a Ram-rajya.
Main Characters of the Ramayana
Dasaratha -- King of Ayodhya (capital of Kosala), whose eldest son was Rama. Dasaratha had three wives and four sons -- Rama, Bharata, and the twins Lakshmana and Satrughna.
Rama -- Dasaratha's first-born son, and the upholder of Dharma (correct conduct and duty). Rama, along with his wife Sita, have served as role models for thousands of generations in India and elsewhere. Rama is regarded by many Hindus as an incarnation of the god Vishnu.
Sita -- Rama's wife, the adopted daughter of King Janak. Sita was found in the furrows of a sacred field, and was regarded by the people of Janak's kingdom as a blessed child.
Bharata -- Rama's brother by Queen Kaikeyi. When Bharata learned of his mother's scheme to banish Rama and place him on the throne, he put Rama's sandals on the throne and ruled Ayodhya in his name.
Hanuman -- A leader of the monkey tribe allied with Rama against Ravana. Hanuman has many magical powers because his father was the god of the wind. Hanuman's devotion to Rama, and his supernatural feats in the battle to recapture Sita, has made him one of the most popular characters in the Ramayana.
Ravana -- The 10-headed king of Lanka who abducted Sita.
Kaushlaya -- Dasaratha's first wife, and the mother of Rama.
Lakshmana -- Rama's younger brother by Dasaratha's third wife, Sumitra. When Rama and Sita were exiled to the forest, Lakshmana followed in order to serve.
Ramayana: A Summary
1. Dasharatha, King of Aydohya, has three wives and four sons. Rama is the eldest. His mother is Kaushalya. Bharata is the son of his second and favorite wife, Queen Kaikeyi. The other two are twins, Lakshman and Shatrughna. Rama and Bharata are blue, perhaps indicating they were dark skinned or originally south Indian deities.
2) A sage takes the boys out to train them in archery. Rama has hit an apple hanging from a string.
3) In a neighboring city the ruler's daughter is named Sita. When it was time for Sita to choose her bridegroom, at a ceremony called a swayamvara, the princes were asked to string a giant bow. No one else can even lift the bow, but as Rama bends it, he not only strings it but breaks it in two. Sita indicates she has chosen Rama as her husband by putting a garland around his neck. The disappointed suitors watch.
4) King Dasharatha, Rama's father, decides it is time to give his throne to his eldest son Rama and retire to the forest to seek moksha. Everyone seems pleased. This plan fulfills the rules of dharma because an eldest son should rule and, if a son can take over one's responsibilities, one's last years may be spent in a search for moksha. In addition, everyone loves Rama. However Rama's step-mother, the king's second wife, is not pleased. She wants her son, Bharata, to rule. Because of an oath Dasharatha had made to her years before, she gets the king to agree to banish Rama for fourteen years and to crown Bharata, even though the king, on bended knee, begs her not to demand such things. Broken-hearted, the devastated king cannot face Rama with the news and Kaikeyi must tell him.
5) Rama, always obedient, is as content to go into banishment in the forest as to be crowned king. Sita convinces Rama that she belongs at his side and his brother Lakshman also begs to accompany them. Rama, Sita and Lakshman set out for the forest.
Bharata, whose mother's evil plot has won him the throne, is very upset when he finds out what has happened. Not for a moment does he consider breaking the rules of dharma and becoming king in Rama's place. He goes to Rama's forest retreat and begs Rama to return and rule, but Rama refuses. "We must obey father," Rama says. Bharata then takes Rama's sandals saying, "I will put these on the throne, and every day I shall place the fruits of my work at the feet on my Lord." Embracing Rama, he takes the sandals and returns to Aydohya.
6) Years pass and Rama, Sita and Lakshman are very happy in the forest. Rama and Lakshman destroy the rakshasas (evil creatures) who disturb the sages in their meditations. One day a rakshasa princess tries to seduce Rama, and Lakshmana wounds her and drives her away. She returns to her brother Ravana, the ten-headed ruler of Lanka (Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon), and tells her brother (who has a weakness for beautiful women) about lovely Sita.
Ravana devises a plan to abduct Sita. He sends a magical golden deer which Sita desires. Rama and Lakshman go off to hunt the deer, first drawing a protective circle around Sita and warning her she will be safe as long as she does not step outside the circle. As they go off, Ravana (who can change his shape) appears as a holy man begging alms. The moment Sita steps outside the circle to give him food, Ravana grabs her and carries her off the his kingdom in Lanka.
7) Rama is broken-hearted when he returns to the empty hut and cannot find Sita. A band of monkeys offer to help him find Sita.
Ravana has carried Sita to his palace in Lanka, but he cannot force her to be his wife so he puts her in a grove and alternately sweet-talks her and threatens her in an attempt to get her to agree to marry him. Sita will not even look at him but thinks only of her beloved Rama. Hanuman, the general of the monkey band can fly since his father is the wind, and Hanuman flies to Lanka and, finding Sita in the grove, comforts her and tells her Rama will soon come and save her.
8) Ravana's men capture Hanuman, and Ravana orders them to wrap Hanuman's tail in cloth and to set it on fire. With his tail burning, Hanuman hops from house-top to house-top, setting Lanka afire. He then flies back to Rama to tell him where Sita is.
9) Rama, Lakshman and the monkey army build a causeway from the tip of India to Lanka and cross over to Lanka. A might battle ensues. Rama kills several of Ravana's brothers and then
Rama confronts ten-headed Ravana. (Ravana is known for his wisdom as well as for his weakness for women which may explain why he is pictured as very brainy.) Rama finally kills Ravana.
10). Rama frees Sita. After Sita proves here purity, they return to Ayodhya and Rama becomes king. His rule, Ram-rajya, is an ideal time when everyone does his or her dharma and "fathers never have to light the funeral pyres for their sons."
Literature - The Donkey Cart
The Donkey Cart
At twenty-five, I was a teacher in a small town in Northwest China. The town was sparsely populated and being so remote, it lacked modern means of communication. In the evening, the wolves howled in the nearby hills and occasionally entered the town in quest of prey.
I spent only one year there and, being to endure the isolation, packed my bags when the summer holidays arrived and prepared to return home.
A traveler had to take a donkey cart to the nearest railhead, some twenty-five miles away. On arriving at the departure point in the center of the town, I found that all the carts, being mostly engaged in carrying local products, had left. I began to despair.
“Sir,” a sibilant whisper came from a young foki whom I only knew a little (he was from the tiny Moslem restaurant), “all the carts have gone out into the country districts.” Pretending, I left his remark unnoticed. As time passed, I began to feel tired and hungry. The foci approached again and said, “Sir, why not come inside to rest? There may be a donkey cart somewhere in the town. I’ll try to find one for you.”
“All right,” I agreed, “take my baggage inside.”
Having taken a table facing the street, I ordered a small pot of wine and dish of mutton, which were promptly served. A stout cheerful man, the owner of the restaurant, must have learned of my problem so he came to me.
“Relax, my friend, and I’ll see what can be done,” he said, rubbing his hands together.
“It’s already four o’clock,” I complained, “and he said, rubbing his hands together.
“Don’t worry,” said the innkeeper, “dry weather like this is good traveling at night.”
I sat there quietly, looking at my watch occasionally, hoping to see a cart through the open door. The entrance was suddenly barred by the figure of the foki who came, shouting that business was good at the market and that all the carts had gone and were not expected to return until the morrow. The foci moved away, revealing an empty donkey cart. I leaped up, hurried to the door and I was just about to hail the driver when I realized who he was.
My hands dropped and I returned regretfully to my seat. The innkeeper gave a sympathetic smile. The driver was Lin Ng, an old man with the most unsavory reputation. Among the drivers, He couldn’t be trusted. Even the children called the villain in their games Lin Ng. I had used his cart once when I arrived in the town and I remember him vividly as a melancholic with thick eye-brows, wide cheekbones, and a pinch of white mustache.
A story about him moves around the town, saying that when he was young he had been a member of a gang. They had all been punished by the law but the old foki escaped and returned to the town. He had taken the job of being a transport driver. Soon afterwards, an event occurred, which seemed to confirm his reputation. It was said that he was employed to drive a local merchant who carried a substantial sum of money. The day after the journey, the merchant was found clubbed to death in a ditch below a stretch of plateau, some miles from the town. Everyone was aware that Lin Ng was the driver who has been employed to drive the merchant.
He denied this and asserted that the merchant had transferred to another cart driven by Ngau Lo Tsun at halfway stage.
The local magistrate made a formal investigation of the case but could find no definite evidence except for some bruises in Lin Ng’s arms. He was, of course, acquitted but the people of the town still considered him guilty. They avoided him and seldom made use of his service except for short journeys during the day and along well frequented roads.
The clock struck five and I realized that there was a little hope of catching my train now. Unless---?
“Ask old Lin Ng if it is still possible to catch the 9:45 train if we leave now,” I said. The innkeeper looked worriedly at me but went nevertheless outside to inquire for me.
Old Lin Ng, his shabby hat in hand, said with some confidence, “I’ll get you to the train in time, sir, but we must start at once.’’ I looked at the innkeeper hesitantly but obstinacy urged me to put my faith in Lin Ng. I had to make the trip. ‘‘Is the weather suitable for a night journey?’‘ I asked.
‘‘It is perfect, sir,’‘was the reply. When I paused, again he seemed to sense the cause of my worry. ‘‘You could always take another cart in the e morning,’‘he went on.
‘‘No,’‘I had decided, ‘‘I have to catch the train tonight,’‘I paid the bill and went outside with my baggage. Lin Ng lifted the baggage on the cart. As I climbed in, he said, ‘‘we are ready to go now, sir. You can take a nap if you want to.’‘
Flatly I answered, ‘‘I don’t want to.’‘And worth a crack of his whip, we lurched forward.
Some three hours had passed and we were traveling across a barren plain under the darkening sky. The only signs of life were the occasional barking of the dogs as we passed near some habitations. The country side seemed to be asleep with the night wind singing a lullaby. The driver rocked and swayed rhythmically now giving a flick of the whip top the donkey. I leaned against the side of the cart grasping a large stone, which I had picked up before climbing into the vehicle.
Lin Ng glanced at the sooty lamp and at the starry snaky, then turned to me. My hand gripped the stone harder. ‘‘Are you dozing, sir?’‘
‘‘No.’‘
The cart began to slow down and the driver made the whip sound loudly in the night air. The poor animal stretched its neck but to little avail. We were having difficulties climbing the hill from the plain. ‘‘Get on, damn you!’‘Yelled Lin Ng, jumping down from the seat and moving to the rear of the cart. I felt nervous now wondering if this was a calculated move to get behind me.
‘‘I’ll have to push from the back if you will shout at the donkey.’‘
‘‘Shall I get down to make the cart lighter?’‘
‘‘No, just sit there, sir, please.’‘ He replied.
‘‘I’d better get down for a while if only to stretch my legs/’‘
I jumped down and walked behind the cart while the driver strained until we reached the crest of the hill.
‘‘Thank you. You are very kind to help my donkey. He is almost as old as I am now, route for a long time. He has been doing short journeys around the town and has forgotten this hill.’‘
I resumed my seat and by then, the night grew even darker; the way more rugged. The wheels creaked and groaned as though in protest of the rough terrain. Suddenly, he put his whip down in the cart and fumbled at his waist.
Would he attack me now? I wondered. I put one foot on the seat and held the stone, ready to defend myself. There was a rustle and he half turned in his seat. He struck a match and the familiar smell of tobacco smoke drifted by me/
‘‘You want to smoke/ Sir?’‘
‘‘No, I don’t,’‘
‘‘I have not been so far out of the town a long time, it seemed very strange to me now.’‘
‘‘It’s certainly strange!’‘ I replied,
‘‘You are a southerner, sir. I wonder if things are strange in the south?’‘
I replied that things were strange in any parts of the world.
He laughed.’‘ Things are all strange under the sun. ‘‘The smoke drifted over his shoulder toward me. ‘‘Have you heard strange rumors about me in the town?’‘He continued, dispassionately.
‘‘Probably.’ I tried to appear in different, slightly afraid as I wonder why he had asked that question.
‘‘I had no long journeys for years because the town folks are afraid of me. They say I was a robber once/’‘
‘‘Are there such rumors?’‘ I pretended to be ignorant of the story.
‘‘That’s why I say this world is steerage. Rumor is more vicious than an angry serpent. Once you are bitten by it, you seldom recover. When I was young man and trying to earn a living, tried many jobs. I was a soldier for a while, and then worked in a vineyard later where I was so unhappy that I decided to return home. Just before I arrive red, a large gang of robbers was arrested near the town. People had suspected that I had been one of the gang and had escaped.’‘
‘‘But how could they suspect with no evidence?’‘ I interrupted.
‘‘Everyone has two lips,’‘he went on; ‘‘we can’t stop them from talking. Sir, you may have heard a much stronger rumor about me’‘
‘‘Well … vaguely,’‘I answered.
‘‘Let me tell you the truth. It was a night such as thin and on this same road when I was taking a leather dealer to the station. He was as friendly as you, sir. He kept talking about the business situation while smoking owner cigarette after another. Midway, we met an empty cart going slowly in the same direction. I knew the driver, Ngau Lo Taunt, and asked him if he would like to take my passenger ate rest of the way to thru station as I was very tired mad wanted to be home early. He explained that he had lost his whip and that his lamp. My passenger gave me the half fee and I took it, glad that I could go home’’‘
‘‘The next day, It was reported that the merchant had been found dead in the ditch below the road, and several people knew that head been my passenger, so I was arrested. But there was no proof, so I was eventually released. I went to see Lo Tsun who told me that three robbers who demanded money from the merchant had ambushed his cart. When he refused to pay, they clubbed him to death and chased him away. Lo Tsun went on to say that as long as we remained poor, people would not suspect us of robbing the merchant. But them, in spite of my poverty, sir, no one believes me.’‘
I felt uneasy, while I contemplated his trouble. It seemed rather than unfair. I loosened my grip on the stone and lit a cigarette.
‘‘Look, sir ‘‘he pointed, ‘‘there is the very spot where I handed over my passenger. There by that date tree. ‘‘I believe you.’‘
‘‘I can’t really blame you for not doing so,’‘He continued.’‘ Once a rumor has begun. It is difficult to stop it.’‘
We remained silent for a long time. The singular sound was that of the revolving loneliness of the autumn night. In the northern China, the evenings are usually quiet.
‘‘Are you sleeping, sir? What time is it now?’‘
‘‘I wasn’t asleep,’‘I replied, bending towards the lamp to look at my watch, ‘‘it’s almost nine.’‘
‘‘If only my donkey were more energetic. I would have been on my way back by now.’‘ I cautiously dropped the stone over the side and Lin Ng stopped the cart. ‘’Did you drop something, sir?’‘
‘‘No, perhaps it was a stone thrown up by the wheels.’‘
He waved his why [and the cart advanced once again. We could see some lights in the distance. A locomotive whistle could be hearted and I realized that nay journey was almost over.
‘‘Sir, write, if you please, to your friends back in the town so that I can have more long distance journeys.’‘
‘‘I would, ‘‘I assured him.
We entered the city and I gave the old man a doubt fee. He made his farewell and left to get a drink at the inn. His shadow soon disappeared. I must write that letter. I may help the poor man.
At twenty-five, I was a teacher in a small town in Northwest China. The town was sparsely populated and being so remote, it lacked modern means of communication. In the evening, the wolves howled in the nearby hills and occasionally entered the town in quest of prey.
I spent only one year there and, being to endure the isolation, packed my bags when the summer holidays arrived and prepared to return home.
A traveler had to take a donkey cart to the nearest railhead, some twenty-five miles away. On arriving at the departure point in the center of the town, I found that all the carts, being mostly engaged in carrying local products, had left. I began to despair.
“Sir,” a sibilant whisper came from a young foki whom I only knew a little (he was from the tiny Moslem restaurant), “all the carts have gone out into the country districts.” Pretending, I left his remark unnoticed. As time passed, I began to feel tired and hungry. The foci approached again and said, “Sir, why not come inside to rest? There may be a donkey cart somewhere in the town. I’ll try to find one for you.”
“All right,” I agreed, “take my baggage inside.”
Having taken a table facing the street, I ordered a small pot of wine and dish of mutton, which were promptly served. A stout cheerful man, the owner of the restaurant, must have learned of my problem so he came to me.
“Relax, my friend, and I’ll see what can be done,” he said, rubbing his hands together.
“It’s already four o’clock,” I complained, “and he said, rubbing his hands together.
“Don’t worry,” said the innkeeper, “dry weather like this is good traveling at night.”
I sat there quietly, looking at my watch occasionally, hoping to see a cart through the open door. The entrance was suddenly barred by the figure of the foki who came, shouting that business was good at the market and that all the carts had gone and were not expected to return until the morrow. The foci moved away, revealing an empty donkey cart. I leaped up, hurried to the door and I was just about to hail the driver when I realized who he was.
My hands dropped and I returned regretfully to my seat. The innkeeper gave a sympathetic smile. The driver was Lin Ng, an old man with the most unsavory reputation. Among the drivers, He couldn’t be trusted. Even the children called the villain in their games Lin Ng. I had used his cart once when I arrived in the town and I remember him vividly as a melancholic with thick eye-brows, wide cheekbones, and a pinch of white mustache.
A story about him moves around the town, saying that when he was young he had been a member of a gang. They had all been punished by the law but the old foki escaped and returned to the town. He had taken the job of being a transport driver. Soon afterwards, an event occurred, which seemed to confirm his reputation. It was said that he was employed to drive a local merchant who carried a substantial sum of money. The day after the journey, the merchant was found clubbed to death in a ditch below a stretch of plateau, some miles from the town. Everyone was aware that Lin Ng was the driver who has been employed to drive the merchant.
He denied this and asserted that the merchant had transferred to another cart driven by Ngau Lo Tsun at halfway stage.
The local magistrate made a formal investigation of the case but could find no definite evidence except for some bruises in Lin Ng’s arms. He was, of course, acquitted but the people of the town still considered him guilty. They avoided him and seldom made use of his service except for short journeys during the day and along well frequented roads.
The clock struck five and I realized that there was a little hope of catching my train now. Unless---?
“Ask old Lin Ng if it is still possible to catch the 9:45 train if we leave now,” I said. The innkeeper looked worriedly at me but went nevertheless outside to inquire for me.
Old Lin Ng, his shabby hat in hand, said with some confidence, “I’ll get you to the train in time, sir, but we must start at once.’’ I looked at the innkeeper hesitantly but obstinacy urged me to put my faith in Lin Ng. I had to make the trip. ‘‘Is the weather suitable for a night journey?’‘ I asked.
‘‘It is perfect, sir,’‘was the reply. When I paused, again he seemed to sense the cause of my worry. ‘‘You could always take another cart in the e morning,’‘he went on.
‘‘No,’‘I had decided, ‘‘I have to catch the train tonight,’‘I paid the bill and went outside with my baggage. Lin Ng lifted the baggage on the cart. As I climbed in, he said, ‘‘we are ready to go now, sir. You can take a nap if you want to.’‘
Flatly I answered, ‘‘I don’t want to.’‘And worth a crack of his whip, we lurched forward.
Some three hours had passed and we were traveling across a barren plain under the darkening sky. The only signs of life were the occasional barking of the dogs as we passed near some habitations. The country side seemed to be asleep with the night wind singing a lullaby. The driver rocked and swayed rhythmically now giving a flick of the whip top the donkey. I leaned against the side of the cart grasping a large stone, which I had picked up before climbing into the vehicle.
Lin Ng glanced at the sooty lamp and at the starry snaky, then turned to me. My hand gripped the stone harder. ‘‘Are you dozing, sir?’‘
‘‘No.’‘
The cart began to slow down and the driver made the whip sound loudly in the night air. The poor animal stretched its neck but to little avail. We were having difficulties climbing the hill from the plain. ‘‘Get on, damn you!’‘Yelled Lin Ng, jumping down from the seat and moving to the rear of the cart. I felt nervous now wondering if this was a calculated move to get behind me.
‘‘I’ll have to push from the back if you will shout at the donkey.’‘
‘‘Shall I get down to make the cart lighter?’‘
‘‘No, just sit there, sir, please.’‘ He replied.
‘‘I’d better get down for a while if only to stretch my legs/’‘
I jumped down and walked behind the cart while the driver strained until we reached the crest of the hill.
‘‘Thank you. You are very kind to help my donkey. He is almost as old as I am now, route for a long time. He has been doing short journeys around the town and has forgotten this hill.’‘
I resumed my seat and by then, the night grew even darker; the way more rugged. The wheels creaked and groaned as though in protest of the rough terrain. Suddenly, he put his whip down in the cart and fumbled at his waist.
Would he attack me now? I wondered. I put one foot on the seat and held the stone, ready to defend myself. There was a rustle and he half turned in his seat. He struck a match and the familiar smell of tobacco smoke drifted by me/
‘‘You want to smoke/ Sir?’‘
‘‘No, I don’t,’‘
‘‘I have not been so far out of the town a long time, it seemed very strange to me now.’‘
‘‘It’s certainly strange!’‘ I replied,
‘‘You are a southerner, sir. I wonder if things are strange in the south?’‘
I replied that things were strange in any parts of the world.
He laughed.’‘ Things are all strange under the sun. ‘‘The smoke drifted over his shoulder toward me. ‘‘Have you heard strange rumors about me in the town?’‘He continued, dispassionately.
‘‘Probably.’ I tried to appear in different, slightly afraid as I wonder why he had asked that question.
‘‘I had no long journeys for years because the town folks are afraid of me. They say I was a robber once/’‘
‘‘Are there such rumors?’‘ I pretended to be ignorant of the story.
‘‘That’s why I say this world is steerage. Rumor is more vicious than an angry serpent. Once you are bitten by it, you seldom recover. When I was young man and trying to earn a living, tried many jobs. I was a soldier for a while, and then worked in a vineyard later where I was so unhappy that I decided to return home. Just before I arrive red, a large gang of robbers was arrested near the town. People had suspected that I had been one of the gang and had escaped.’‘
‘‘But how could they suspect with no evidence?’‘ I interrupted.
‘‘Everyone has two lips,’‘he went on; ‘‘we can’t stop them from talking. Sir, you may have heard a much stronger rumor about me’‘
‘‘Well … vaguely,’‘I answered.
‘‘Let me tell you the truth. It was a night such as thin and on this same road when I was taking a leather dealer to the station. He was as friendly as you, sir. He kept talking about the business situation while smoking owner cigarette after another. Midway, we met an empty cart going slowly in the same direction. I knew the driver, Ngau Lo Taunt, and asked him if he would like to take my passenger ate rest of the way to thru station as I was very tired mad wanted to be home early. He explained that he had lost his whip and that his lamp. My passenger gave me the half fee and I took it, glad that I could go home’’‘
‘‘The next day, It was reported that the merchant had been found dead in the ditch below the road, and several people knew that head been my passenger, so I was arrested. But there was no proof, so I was eventually released. I went to see Lo Tsun who told me that three robbers who demanded money from the merchant had ambushed his cart. When he refused to pay, they clubbed him to death and chased him away. Lo Tsun went on to say that as long as we remained poor, people would not suspect us of robbing the merchant. But them, in spite of my poverty, sir, no one believes me.’‘
I felt uneasy, while I contemplated his trouble. It seemed rather than unfair. I loosened my grip on the stone and lit a cigarette.
‘‘Look, sir ‘‘he pointed, ‘‘there is the very spot where I handed over my passenger. There by that date tree. ‘‘I believe you.’‘
‘‘I can’t really blame you for not doing so,’‘He continued.’‘ Once a rumor has begun. It is difficult to stop it.’‘
We remained silent for a long time. The singular sound was that of the revolving loneliness of the autumn night. In the northern China, the evenings are usually quiet.
‘‘Are you sleeping, sir? What time is it now?’‘
‘‘I wasn’t asleep,’‘I replied, bending towards the lamp to look at my watch, ‘‘it’s almost nine.’‘
‘‘If only my donkey were more energetic. I would have been on my way back by now.’‘ I cautiously dropped the stone over the side and Lin Ng stopped the cart. ‘’Did you drop something, sir?’‘
‘‘No, perhaps it was a stone thrown up by the wheels.’‘
He waved his why [and the cart advanced once again. We could see some lights in the distance. A locomotive whistle could be hearted and I realized that nay journey was almost over.
‘‘Sir, write, if you please, to your friends back in the town so that I can have more long distance journeys.’‘
‘‘I would, ‘‘I assured him.
We entered the city and I gave the old man a doubt fee. He made his farewell and left to get a drink at the inn. His shadow soon disappeared. I must write that letter. I may help the poor man.
Literature - What Men Live By by Leo Tolstoy
What Men Live By
Leo Tolstoy
A shoemaker named Simon, who had neither house nor land of his own,
lived with his wife and children in a peasant's hut, and earned his
living by his work. Work was cheap, but bread was dear, and what he
earned he spent for food. The man and his wife had but one
sheepskin coat between them for winter wear, and even that was torn
to tatters, and this was the second year he had been wanting to buy
sheep-skins for a new coat. Before winter Simon saved up a little
money: a three-rouble note lay hidden in his wife's box, and five
roubles and twenty kopeks were owed him by customers in the village.
So one morning he prepared to go to the village to buy the sheep-
skins. He put on over his shirt his wife's wadded nankeen jacket,
and over that he put his own cloth coat. He took the three-rouble
note in his pocket, cut himself a stick to serve as a staff, and
started off after breakfast. "I'll collect the five roubles that
are due to me," thought he, "add the three I have got, and that will
be enough to buy sheep-skins for the winter coat."
He came to the village and called at a peasant's hut, but the man
was not at home. The peasant's wife promised that the money should
be paid next week, but she would not pay it herself. Then Simon
called on another peasant, but this one swore he had no money, and
would only pay twenty kopeks which he owed for a pair of boots Simon
had mended. Simon then tried to buy the sheep-skins on credit, but
the dealer would not trust him.
"Bring your money," said he, "then you may have your pick of the
skins. We know what debt-collecting is like." So all the business
the shoemaker did was to get the twenty kopeks for boots he had
mended, and to take a pair of felt boots a peasant gave him to sole
with leather.
Simon felt downhearted. He spent the twenty kopeks on vodka, and
started homewards without having bought any skins. In the morning
he had felt the frost; but now, after drinking the vodka, he felt
warm, even without a sheep-skin coat. He trudged along, striking
his stick on the frozen earth with one hand, swinging the felt boots
with the other, and talking to himself.
I
"I'm quite warm," said he, "though I have no sheep-skin coat. I've
had a drop, and it runs through all my veins. I need no sheep-
skins. I go along and don't worry about anything. That's the sort
of man I am! What do I care? I can live without sheep-skins. I
don't need them. My wife will fret, to be sure. And, true enough,
it is a shame; one works all day long, and then does not get paid.
Stop a bit! If you don't bring that money along, sure enough I'll
skin you, blessed if I don't. How's that? He pays twenty kopeks at
a time! What can I do with twenty kopeks? Drink it-that's all one
can do! Hard up, he says he is! So he may be--but what about me?
You have a house, and cattle, and everything; I've only what I stand
up in! You have corn of your own growing; I have to buy every grain.
Do what I will, I must spend three roubles every week for bread
alone. I come home and find the bread all used up, and I have to
fork out another rouble and a half. So just pay up what you owe,
and no nonsense about it!"
By this time he had nearly reached the shrine at the bend of the
road. Looking up, he saw something whitish behind the shrine. The
daylight was fading, and the shoemaker peered at the thing without
being able to make out what it was. "There was no white stone here
before. Can it be an ox? It's not like an ox. It has a head like a
man, but it's too white; and what could a man be doing there?"
He came closer, so that it was clearly visible. To his surprise it
really was a man, alive or dead, sitting naked, leaning motionless
against the shrine. Terror seized the shoemaker, and he thought,
"Some one has killed him, stripped him, and left him there. If I
meddle I shall surely get into trouble."
So the shoemaker went on. He passed in front of the shrine so that
he could not see the man. When he had gone some way, he looked
back, and saw that the man was no longer leaning against the shrine,
but was moving as if looking towards him. The shoemaker felt more
frightened than before, and thought, "Shall I go back to him, or
shall I go on? If I go near him something dreadful may happen. Who
knows who the fellow is? He has not come here for any good. If I go
near him he may jump up and throttle me, and there will be no
getting away. Or if not, he'd still be a burden on one's hands.
What could I do with a naked man? I couldn't give him my last
clothes. Heaven only help me to get away!"
So the shoemaker hurried on, leaving the shrine behind him-when
suddenly his conscience smote him, and he stopped in the road.
"What are you doing, Simon?" said he to himself. "The man may be
dying of want, and you slip past afraid. Have you grown so rich as
to be afraid of robbers? Ah, Simon, shame on you!"
So he turned back and went up to the man.
II
Simon approached the stranger, looked at him, and saw that he was a
young man, fit, with no bruises on his body, only evidently freezing
and frightened, and he sat there leaning back without looking up at
Simon, as if too faint to lift his eyes. Simon went close to him,
and then the man seemed to wake up. Turning his head, he opened his
eyes and looked into Simon's face. That one look was enough to make
Simon fond of the man. He threw the felt boots on the ground, undid
his sash, laid it on the boots, and took off his cloth coat.
"It's not a time for talking," said he. "Come, put this coat on at
once!" And Simon took the man by the elbows and helped him to rise.
As he stood there, Simon saw that his body was clean and in good
condition, his hands and feet shapely, and his face good and kind.
He threw his coat over the man's shoulders, but the latter could not
find the sleeves. Simon guided his arms into them, and drawing the
coat well on, wrapped it closely about him, tying the sash round the
man's waist.
Simon even took off his torn cap to put it on the man's head, but
then his own head felt cold, and he thought: "I'm quite bald, while
he has long curly hair." So he put his cap on his own head again.
"It will be better to give him something for his feet," thought he;
and he made the man sit down, and helped him to put on the felt
boots, saying, "There, friend, now move about and warm yourself.
Other matters can be settled later on. Can you walk?"
The man stood up and looked kindly at Simon, but could not say a
word.
"Why don't you speak?" said Simon. "It's too cold to stay here, we
must be getting home. There now, take my stick, and if you're
feeling weak, lean on that. Now step out!"
The man started walking, and moved easily, not lagging behind.
As they went along, Simon asked him, "And where do you belong to?"
"I'm not from these parts."
"I thought as much. I know the folks hereabouts. But, how did you
come to be there by the shrine ?"
"I cannot tell."
"Has some one been ill-treating you?"
"No one has ill-treated me. God has punished me."
"Of course God rules all. Still, you'll have to find food and
shelter somewhere. Where do you want to go to?"
"It is all the same to me."
Simon was amazed. The man did not look like a rogue, and he spoke
gently, but yet he gave no account of himself. Still Simon thought,
"Who knows what may have happened?" And he said to the stranger:
"Well then, come home with me, and at least warm yourself awhile."
So Simon walked towards his home, and the stranger kept up with him,
walking at his side. The wind had risen and Simon felt it cold
under his shirt. He was getting over his tipsiness by now, and
began to feel the frost. He went along sniffling and wrapping his
wife's coat round him, and he thought to himself: "There now--talk
about sheep-skins! I went out for sheep-skins and come home without
even a coat to my back, and what is more, I'm bringing a naked man
along with me. Matryona won't be pleased!" And when he thought of
his wife he felt sad; but when he looked at the stranger and
remembered how he had looked up at him at the shrine, his heart was
glad.
III
Simon's wife had everything ready early that day. She had cut wood,
brought water, fed the children, eaten her own meal, and now she sat
thinking. She wondered when she ought to make bread: now or
tomorrow? There was still a large piece left.
"If Simon has had some dinner in town," thought she, "and does not
eat much for supper, the bread will last out another day."
She weighed the piece of bread in her hand again and again, and
thought: "I won't make any more today. We have only enough flour
left to bake one batch; We can manage to make this last out till
Friday."
So Matryona put away the bread, and sat down at the table to patch
her husband's shirt. While she worked she thought how her husband
was buying skins for a winter coat.
"If only the dealer does not cheat him. My good man is much too
simple; he cheats nobody, but any child can take him in. Eight
roubles is a lot of money--he should get a good coat at that price.
Not tanned skins, but still a proper winter coat. How difficult it
was last winter to get on without a warm coat. I could neither get
down to the river, nor go out anywhere. When he went out he put on
all we had, and there was nothing left for me. He did not start
very early today, but still it's time he was back. I only hope he
has not gone on the spree!"
Hardly had Matryona thought this, when steps were heard on the
threshold, and some one entered. Matryona stuck her needle into her
work and went out into the passage. There she saw two men: Simon,
and with him a man without a hat, and wearing felt boots.
Matryona noticed at once that her husband smelt of spirits. "There
now, he has been drinking," thought she. And when she saw that he
was coatless, had only her jacket on, brought no parcel, stood there
silent, and seemed ashamed, her heart was ready to break with
disappointment. "He has drunk the money," thought she, "and has
been on the spree with some good-for-nothing fellow whom he has
brought home with him."
Matryona let them pass into the hut, followed them in, and saw that
the stranger was a young, slight man, wearing her husband's coat.
There was no shirt to be seen under it, and he had no hat. Having
entered, he stood, neither moving, nor raising his eyes, and
Matryona thought: "He must be a bad man--he's afraid."
Matryona frowned, and stood beside the oven looking to see what they
would do.
Simon took off his cap and sat down on the bench as if things were
all right.
"Come, Matryona; if supper is ready, let us have some."
Matryona muttered something to herself and did not move, but stayed
where she was, by the oven. She looked first at the one and then at
the other of them, and only shook her head. Simon saw that his wife
was annoyed, but tried to pass it off. Pretending not to notice
anything, he took the stranger by the arm.
"Sit down, friend," said he, "and let us have some supper."
The stranger sat down on the bench.
"Haven't you cooked anything for us?" said Simon.
Matryona's anger boiled over. "I've cooked, but not for you. It
seems to me you have drunk your wits away. You went to buy a sheep-
skin coat, but come home without so much as the coat you had on, and
bring a naked vagabond home with you. I have no supper for
drunkards like you."
"That's enough, Matryona. Don't wag your tongue without reason.
You had better ask what sort of man--"
"And you tell me what you've done with the money?"
Simon found the pocket of the jacket, drew out the three-rouble
note, and unfolded it.
"Here is the money. Trifonof did not pay, but promises to pay soon."
Matryona got still more angry; he had bought no sheep-skins, but had
put his only coat on some naked fellow and had even brought him to
their house.
She snatched up the note from the table, took it to put away in
safety, and said: "I have no supper for you. We can't feed all the
naked drunkards in the world."
"There now, Matryona, hold your tongue a bit. First hear what a man
has to say-"
"Much wisdom I shall hear from a drunken fool. I was right in not
wanting to marry you-a drunkard. The linen my mother gave me you
drank; and now you've been to buy a coat-and have drunk it, too!"
Simon tried to explain to his wife that he had only spent twenty
kopeks; tried to tell how he had found the man--but Matryona would
not let him get a word in. She talked nineteen to the dozen, and
dragged in things that had happened ten years before.
Matryona talked and talked, and at last she flew at Simon and seized
him by the sleeve.
"Give me my jacket. It is the only one I have, and you must needs
take it from me and wear it yourself. Give it here, you mangy dog,
and may the devil take you."
Simon began to pull off the jacket, and turned a sleeve of it inside
out; Matryona seized the jacket and it burst its seams, She snatched
it up, threw it over her head and went to the door. She meant to go
out, but stopped undecided--she wanted to work off her anger, but
she also wanted to learn what sort of a man the stranger was.
IV
Matryona stopped and said: "If he were a good man he would not be
naked. Why, he hasn't even a shirt on him. If he were all right,
you would say where you came across the fellow."
"That's just what I am trying to tell you," said Simon. "As I came
to the shrine I saw him sitting all naked and frozen. It isn't
quite the weather to sit about naked! God sent me to him, or he
would have perished. What was I to do? How do we know what may have
happened to him? So I took him, clothed him, and brought him along.
Don't be so angry, Matryona. It is a sin. Remember, we all must
die one day."
Angry words rose to Matryona's lips, but she looked at the stranger
and was silent. He sat on the edge of the bench, motionless, his
hands folded on his knees, his head drooping on his breast, his eyes
closed, and his brows knit as if in pain. Matryona was silent: and
Simon said: "Matryona, have you no love of God?"
Matryona heard these words, and as she looked at the stranger,
suddenly her heart softened towards him. She came back from the
door, and going to the oven she got out the supper. Setting a cup
on the table, she poured out some kvas. Then she brought out the
last piece of bread, and set out a knife and spoons.
"Eat, if you want to," said she.
Simon drew the stranger to the table.
"Take your place, young man," said he.
Simon cut the bread, crumbled it into the broth, and they began to
eat. Matryona sat at the corner of the table resting her head on
her hand and looking at the stranger.
And Matryona was touched with pity for the stranger, and began to
feel fond of him. And at once the stranger's face lit up; his brows
were no longer bent, he raised his eyes and smiled at Matryona.
When they had finished supper, the woman cleared away the things and
began questioning the stranger. "Where are you from?" said she.
"I am not from these parts."
"But how did you come to be on the road?"
"I may not tell."
"Did some one rob you?"
"God punished me."
"And you were lying there naked?"
"Yes, naked and freezing. Simon saw me and had pity on me. He took
off his coat, put it on me and brought me here. And you have fed
me, given me drink, and shown pity on me. God will reward you!"
Matryona rose, took from the window Simon's old shirt she had been
patching, and gave it to the stranger. She also brought out a pair
of trousers for him.
"There," said she, "I see you have no shirt. Put this on, and lie
down where you please, in the loft or on the oven ."
The stranger took off the coat, put on the shirt, and lay down in
the loft. Matryona put out the candle, took the coat, and climbed
to where her husband lay.
Matryona drew the skirts of the coat over her and lay down, but
could not sleep; she could not get the stranger out of her mind.
When she remembered that he had eaten their last piece of bread and
that there was none for tomorrow, and thought of the shirt and
trousers she had given away, she felt grieved; but when she
remembered how he had smiled, her heart was glad.
Long did Matryona lie awake, and she noticed that Simon also was
awake--he drew the coat towards him.
"Simon!"
"Well?"
"You have had the last of the bread, and I have not put any to rise.
I don't know what we shall do tomorrow. Perhaps I can borrow some
of neighbor Martha."
"If we're alive we shall find something to eat."
The woman lay still awhile, and then said, "He seems a good man, but
why does he not tell us who he is?"
"I suppose he has his reasons."
"Simon!"
"Well?"
"We give; but why does nobody give us anything?"
Simon did not know what to say; so he only said, "Let us stop
talking," and turned over and went to sleep.
V
In the morning Simon awoke. The children were still asleep; his
wife had gone to the neighbor's to borrow some bread. The stranger
alone was sitting on the bench, dressed in the old shirt and
trousers, and looking upwards. His face was brighter than it had
been the day before.
Simon said to him, "Well, friend; the belly wants bread, and the naked
body clothes. One has to work for a living What work do you know?"
"I do not know any."
This surprised Simon, but he said, "Men who want to learn can
learn anything."
"Men work, and I will work also."
"What is your name?"
"Michael."
"Well, Michael, if you don't wish to talk about yourself, that is
your own affair; but you'll have to earn a living for yourself. If
you will work as I tell you, I will give you food and shelter."
"May God reward you! I will learn. Show me what to do."
Simon took yarn, put it round his thumb and began to twist it.
"It is easy enough--see!"
Michael watched him, put some yarn round his own thumb in the same
way, caught the knack, and twisted the yarn also.
Then Simon showed him how to wax the thread. This also Michael
mastered. Next Simon showed him how to twist the bristle in, and
how to sew, and this, too, Michael learned at once.
Whatever Simon showed him he understood at once, and after three
days he worked as if he had sewn boots all his life. He worked
without stopping, and ate little. When work was over he sat
silently, looking upwards. He hardly went into the street, spoke
only when necessary, and neither joked nor laughed. They never saw
him smile, except that first evening when Matryona gave them supper.
VI
Day by day and week by week the year went round. Michael lived and
worked with Simon. His fame spread till people said that no one
sewed boots so neatly and strongly as Simon's workman, Michael; and
from all the district round people came to Simon for their boots,
and he began to be well off.
One winter day, as Simon and Michael sat working, a carriage on
sledge-runners, with three horses and with bells, drove up to the
hut. They looked out of the window; the carriage stopped at their
door, a fine servant jumped down from the box and opened the door.
A gentleman in a fur coat got out and walked up to Simon's hut. Up
jumped Matryona and opened the door wide. The gentleman stooped to
enter the hut, and when he drew himself up again his head nearly
reached the ceiling, and he seemed quite to fill his end of the room.
Simon rose, bowed, and looked at the gentleman with astonishment.
He had never seen any one like him. Simon himself was lean, Michael
was thin, and Matryona was dry as a bone, but this man was like some
one from another world: red-faced, burly, with a neck like a bull's,
and looking altogether as if he were cast in iron.
The gentleman puffed, threw off his fur coat, sat down on the bench,
and said, "Which of you is the master bootmaker?"
"I am, your Excellency," said Simon, coming forward.
Then the gentleman shouted to his lad, "Hey, Fedka, bring the leather!"
The servant ran in, bringing a parcel. The gentleman took the
parcel and put it on the table.
"Untie it," said he. The lad untied it.
The gentleman pointed to the leather.
"Look here, shoemaker," said he, "do you see this leather?"
"Yes, your honor."
"But do you know what sort of leather it is?"
Simon felt the leather and said, "It is good leather."
"Good, indeed! Why, you fool, you never saw such leather before in
your life. It's German, and cost twenty roubles."
Simon was frightened, and said, "Where should I ever see leather
like that?"
"Just so! Now, can you make it into boots for me?"
"Yes, your Excellency, I can."
Then the gentleman shouted at him: "You can, can you? Well, remember
whom you are to make them for, and what the leather is. You must
make me boots that will wear for a year, neither losing shape nor
coming unsown. If you can do it, take the leather and cut it up;
but if you can't, say so. I warn you now if your boots become
unsewn or lose shape within a year, I will have you put in prison.
If they don't burst or lose shape for a year I will pay you ten
roubles for your work."
Simon was frightened, and did not know what to say. He glanced at
Michael and nudging him with his elbow, whispered: "Shall I take
the work?"
Michael nodded his head as if to say, "Yes, take it."
Simon did as Michael advised, and undertook to make boots that would
not lose shape or split for a whole year.
Calling his servant, the gentleman told him to pull the boot off his
left leg, which he stretched out.
"Take my measure!" said he.
Simon stitched a paper measure seventeen inches long, smoothed it
out, knelt down, wiped his hand well on his apron so as not to soil
the gentleman's sock, and began to measure. He measured the sole,
and round the instep, and began to measure the calf of the leg, but
the paper was too short. The calf of the leg was as thick as a beam.
"Mind you don't make it too tight in the leg."
Simon stitched on another strip of paper. The gentleman twitched
his toes about in his sock, looking round at those in the hut, and
as he did so he noticed Michael.
"Whom have you there?" asked he.
"That is my workman. He will sew the boots."
"Mind," said the gentleman to Michael, "remember to make them so
that they will last me a year."
Simon also looked at Michael, and saw that Michael was not looking
at the gentleman, but was gazing into the corner behind the
gentleman, as if he saw some one there. Michael looked and looked,
and suddenly he smiled, and his face became brighter.
"What are you grinning at, you fool?" thundered the gentleman.
"You had better look to it that the boots are ready in time."
"They shall be ready in good time," said Michael.
"Mind it is so," said the gentleman, and he put on his boots and his
fur coat, wrapped the latter round him, and went to the door. But
he forgot to stoop, and struck his head against the lintel.
He swore and rubbed his head. Then he took his seat in the carriage
and drove away.
When he had gone, Simon said: "There's a figure of a man for you!
You could not kill him with a mallet. He almost knocked out the
lintel, but little harm it did him."
And Matryona said: "Living as he does, how should he not grow
strong? Death itself can't touch such a rock as that."
VII
Then Simon said to Michael: "Well, we have taken the work, but we
must see we don't get into trouble over it. The leather is dear,
and the gentleman hot-tempered. We must make no mistakes. Come,
your eye is truer and your hands have become nimbler than mine, so
you take this measure and cut out the boots. I will finish off the
sewing of the vamps."
Michael did as he was told. He took the leather, spread it out on
the table, folded it in two, took a knife and began to cut out.
Matryona came and watched him cutting, and was surprised to see how
he was doing it. Matryona was accustomed to seeing boots made, and
she looked and saw that Michael was not cutting the leather for
boots, but was cutting it round.
She wished to say something, but she thought to herself: "Perhaps I
do not understand how gentleman's boots should be made. I suppose
Michael knows more about it--and I won't interfere."
When Michael had cut up the leather, he took a thread and began to
sew not with two ends, as boots are sewn, but with a single end, as
for soft slippers.
Again Matryona wondered, but again she did not interfere. Michael
sewed on steadily till noon. Then Simon rose for dinner, looked
around, and saw that Michael had made slippers out of the
gentleman's leather.
"Ah," groaned Simon, and he thought, "How is it that Michael, who
has been with me a whole year and never made a mistake before,
should do such a dreadful thing? The gentleman ordered high boots,
welted, with whole fronts, and Michael has made soft slippers with
single soles, and has wasted the leather. What am I to say to the
gentleman? I can never replace leather such as this."
And he said to Michael, "What are you doing, friend? You have ruined me!
You know the gentleman ordered high boots, but see what you have made!"
Hardly had he begun to rebuke Michael, when "rat-tat" went the iron
ring that hung at the door. Some one was knocking. They looked out
of the window; a man had come on horseback, and was fastening his
horse. They opened the door, and the servant who had been with the
gentleman came in.
"Good day," said he.
Good day," replied Simon. "What can we do for you?"
"My mistress has sent me about the boots."
"What about the boots?"
"Why, my master no longer needs them. He is dead."
"Is it possible?"
"He did not live to get home after leaving you, but died in the
carriage. When we reached home and the servants came to help him
alight, he rolled over like a sack. He was dead already, and so
stiff that he could hardly be got out of the carriage. My mistress
sent me here, saying: 'Tell the bootmaker that the gentleman who
ordered boots of him and left the leather for them no longer needs
the boots, but that he must quickly make soft slippers for the
corpse. Wait till they are ready, and bring them back with you.'
That is why I have come."
Michael gathered up the remnants of the leather; rolled them up,
took the soft slippers he had made, slapped them together, wiped
them down with his apron, and handed them and the roll of leather to
the servant, who took them and said: "Good-bye, masters, and good
day to you!"
VIII
Another year passed, and another, and Michael was now living his
sixth year with Simon. He lived as before. He went nowhere, only
spoke when necessary, and had only smiled twice in all those years--
once when Matryona gave him food, and a second time when the
gentleman was in their hut. Simon was more than pleased with his
workman. He never now asked him where he came from, and only feared
lest Michael should go away.
They were all at home one day. Matryona was putting iron pots in
the oven; the children were running along the benches and looking
out of the window; Simon was sewing at one window, and Michael was
fastening on a heel at the other.
One of the boys ran along the bench to Michael, leant on his
shoulder, and looked out of the window.
"Look, Uncle Michael! There is a lady with little girls! She seems
to be coming here. And one of the girls is lame."
When the boy said that, Michael dropped his work, turned to the
window, and looked out into the street.
Simon was surprised. Michael never used to look out into the
street, but now he pressed against the window, staring at something.
Simon also looked out, and saw that a well-dressed woman was really
coming to his hut, leading by the hand two little girls in fur coats
and woolen shawls. The girls could hardly be told one from the
other, except that one of them was crippled in her left leg and
walked with a limp.
The woman stepped into the porch and entered the passage. Feeling
about for the entrance she found the latch, which she lifted, and
opened the door. She let the two girls go in first, and followed
them into the hut.
"Good day, good folk!"
"Pray come in," said Simon. "What can we do for you?"
The woman sat down by the table. The two little girls pressed close
to her knees, afraid of the people in the hut.
"I want leather shoes made for these two little girls for spring."
"We can do that. We never have made such small shoes, but we can
make them; either welted or turnover shoes, linen lined. My man,
Michael, is a master at the work."
Simon glanced at Michael and saw that he had left his work and was
sitting with his eyes fixed on the little girls. Simon was
surprised. It was true the girls were pretty, with black eyes,
plump, and rosy-cheeked, and they wore nice kerchiefs and fur coats,
but still Simon could not understand why Michael should look at them
like that--just as if he had known them before. He was puzzled,
but went on talking with the woman, and arranging the price. Having
fixed it, he prepared the measure. The woman lifted the lame girl
on to her lap and said: "Take two measures from this little girl.
Make one shoe for the lame foot and three for the sound one. They
both have the same size feet. They are twins."
Simon took the measure and, speaking of the lame girl, said: "How
did it happen to her? She is such a pretty girl. Was she born so?"
"No, her mother crushed her leg."
Then Matryona joined in. She wondered who this woman was, and whose
the children were, so she said: "Are not you their mother then?"
"No, my good woman; I am neither their mother nor any relation to
them. They were quite strangers to me, but I adopted them."
"They are not your children and yet you are so fond of them?"
"How can I help being fond of them? I fed them both at my own
breasts. I had a child of my own, but God took him. I was not so
fond of him as I now am of them."
"Then whose children are they?"
IX
The woman, having begun talking, told them the whole story.
"It is about six years since their parents died, both in one week:
their father was buried on the Tuesday, and their mother died on the
Friday. These orphans were born three days after their father's
death, and their mother did not live another day. My husband and I
were then living as peasants in the village. We were neighbors of
theirs, our yard being next to theirs. Their father was a lonely
man; a wood-cutter in the forest. When felling trees one day, they
let one fall on him. It fell across his body and crushed his bowels
out. They hardly got him home before his soul went to God; and that
same week his wife gave birth to twins--these little girls. She
was poor and alone; she had no one, young or old, with her. Alone
she gave them birth, and alone she met her death."
"The next morning I went to see her, but when I entered the hut,
she, poor thing, was already stark and cold. In dying she had
rolled on to this child and crushed her leg. The village folk came
to the hut, washed the body, laid her out, made a coffin, and buried
her. They were good folk. The babies were left alone. What was to
be done with them? I was the only woman there who had a baby at the
time. I was nursing my first-born--eight weeks old. So I took
them for a time. The peasants came together, and thought and
thought what to do with them; and at last they said to me: "For the
present, Mary, you had better keep the girls, and later on we will
arrange what to do for them." So I nursed the sound one at my
breast, but at first I did not feed this crippled one. I did not
suppose she would live. But then I thought to myself, why should
the poor innocent suffer? I pitied her, and began to feed her. And
so I fed my own boy and these two--the three of them--at my own
breast. I was young and strong, and had good food, and God gave me
so much milk that at times it even overflowed. I used sometimes to
feed two at a time, while the third was waiting. When one had
enough I nursed the third. And God so ordered it that these grew
up, while my own was buried before he was two years old. And I had
no more children, though we prospered. Now my husband is working
for the corn merchant at the mill. The pay is good, and we are well
off. But I have no children of my own, and how lonely I should be
without these little girls! How can I help loving them! They are the
joy of my life!"
She pressed the lame little girl to her with one hand, while with
the other she wiped the tears from her cheeks.
And Matryona sighed, and said: "The proverb is true that says, 'One
may live without father or mother, but one cannot live without God.'"
So they talked together, when suddenly the whole hut was lighted up
as though by summer lightning from the corner where Michael sat.
They all looked towards him and saw him sitting, his hands folded on
his knees, gazing upwards and smiling.
X
The woman went away with the girls. Michael rose from the bench,
put down his work, and took off his apron. Then, bowing low to
Simon and his wife, he said: "Farewell, masters. God has forgiven
me. I ask your forgiveness, too, for anything done amiss."
And they saw that a light shone from Michael. And Simon rose, bowed
down to Michael, and said: "I see, Michael, that you are no common
man, and I can neither keep you nor question you. Only tell me
this: how is it that when I found you and brought you home, you were
gloomy, and when my wife gave you food you smiled at her and became
brighter? Then when the gentleman came to order the boots, you
smiled again and became brighter still? And now, when this woman
brought the little girls, you smiled a third time, and have become
as bright as day? Tell me, Michael, why does your face shine so, and
why did you smile those three times?"
And Michael answered: "Light shines from me because I have been
punished, but now God has pardoned me. And I smiled three times,
because God sent me to learn three truths, and I have learnt them.
One I learnt when your wife pitied me, and that is why I smiled the
first time. The second I learnt when the rich man ordered the boots,
and then I smiled again. And now, when I saw those little girls,
I learn the third and last truth, and I smiled the third time."
And Simon said, "Tell me, Michael, what did God punish you for? and
what were the three truths? that I, too, may know them."
And Michael answered: "God punished me for disobeying Him. I was an
angel in heaven and disobeyed God. God sent me to fetch a woman's
soul. I flew to earth, and saw a sick woman lying alone, who had
just given birth to twin girls. They moved feebly at their mother's
side, but she could not lift them to her breast. When she saw me,
she understood that God had sent me for her soul, and she wept and
said: 'Angel of God! My husband has just been buried, killed by a
falling tree. I have neither sister, nor aunt, nor mother: no one
to care for my orphans. Do not take my soul! Let me nurse my babes,
feed them, and set them on their feet before I die. Children cannot
live without father or mother.' And I hearkened to her. I placed
one child at her breast and gave the other into her arms, and
returned to the Lord in heaven. I flew to the Lord, and said: 'I
could not take the soul of the mother. Her husband was killed by a
tree; the woman has twins, and prays that her soul may not be taken.
She says: "Let me nurse and feed my children, and set them on their
feet. Children cannot live without father or mother." I have not
taken her soul.' And God said: 'Go-take the mother's soul, and learn
three truths: Learn What dwells in man, What is not given to man,
and What men live by. When thou has learnt these things, thou shalt
return to heaven.' So I flew again to earth and took the mother's
soul. The babes dropped from her breasts. Her body rolled over on
the bed and crushed one babe, twisting its leg. I rose above the
village, wishing to take her soul to God; but a wind seized me, and
my wings drooped and dropped off. Her soul rose alone to God, while
I fell to earth by the roadside."
XI
And Simon and Matryona understood who it was that had lived with
them, and whom they had clothed and fed. And they wept with awe and
with joy. And the angel said: "I was alone in the field, naked. I
had never known human needs, cold and hunger, till I became a man.
I was famished, frozen, and did not know what to do. I saw, near
the field I was in, a shrine built for God, and I went to it hoping
to find shelter. But the shrine was locked, and I could not enter.
So I sat down behind the shrine to shelter myself at least from the
wind. Evening drew on. I was hungry, frozen, and in pain.
Suddenly I heard a man coming along the road. He carried a pair of
boots, and was talking to himself. For the first time since I
became a man I saw the mortal face of a man, and his face seemed
terrible to me and I turned from it. And I heard the man talking to
himself of how to cover his body from the cold in winter, and how to
feed wife and children. And I thought: "I am perishing of cold and
hunger, and here is a man thinking only of how to clothe himself and
his wife, and how to get bread for themselves. He cannot help me.
When the man saw me he frowned and became still more terrible, and
passed me by on the other side. I despaired; but suddenly I heard
him coming back. I looked up, and did not recognize the same man;
before, I had seen death in his face; but now he was alive, and I
recognized in him the presence of God. He came up to me, clothed
me, took me with him, and brought me to his home. I entered the
house; a woman came to meet us and began to speak. The woman was
still more terrible than the man had been; the spirit of death came
from her mouth; I could not breathe for the stench of death that
spread around her. She wished to drive me out into the cold, and I
knew that if she did so she would die. Suddenly her husband spoke
to her of God, and the woman changed at once. And when she brought
me food and looked at me, I glanced at her and saw that death no
longer dwelt in her; she had become alive, and in her, too, I saw God.
"Then I remembered the first lesson God had set me: 'Learn what
dwells in man.' And I understood that in man dwells Love! I was glad
that God had already begun to show me what He had promised, and I
smiled for the first time. But I had not yet learnt all. I did not
yet know What is not given to man, and What men live by.
"I lived with you, and a year passed. A man came to order boots
that should wear for a year without losing shape or cracking. I
looked at him, and suddenly, behind his shoulder, I saw my comrade--
the angel of death. None but me saw that angel; but I knew him, and
knew that before the sun set he would take that rich man's soul.
And I thought to myself, 'The man is making preparations for a year,
and does not know that he will die before evening.' And I remembered
God's second saying, 'Learn what is not given to man.'
"What dwells in man I already knew. Now I learnt what is not given
him. It is not given to man to know his own needs. And I smiled
for the second time. I was glad to have seen my comrade angel--
glad also that God had revealed to me the second saying.
"But I still did not know all. I did not know What men live by.
And I lived on, waiting till God should reveal to me the last
lesson. In the sixth year came the girl-twins with the woman; and I
recognized the girls, and heard how they had been kept alive.
Having heard the story, I thought, 'Their mother besought me for the
children's sake, and I believed her when she said that children
cannot live without father or mother; but a stranger has nursed
them, and has brought them up.' And when the woman showed her love
for the children that were not her own, and wept over them, I saw in
her the living God and understood What men live by. And I knew that
God had revealed to me the last lesson, and had forgiven my sin.
And then I smiled for the third time."
XII
And the angel's body was bared, and he was clothed in light so that
eye could not look on him; and his voice grew louder, as though it
came not from him but from heaven above. And the angel said:
"I have learnt that all men live not by care for themselves but by love.
"It was not given to the mother to know what her children needed for
their life. Nor was it given to the rich man to know what he himself
needed. Nor is it given to any man to know whether, when evening
comes, he will need boots for his body or slippers for his corpse.
"I remained alive when I was a man, not by care of myself, but
because love was present in a passer-by, and because he and his wife
pitied and loved me. The orphans remained alive not because of
their mother's care, but because there was love in the heart of a
woman, a stranger to them, who pitied and loved them. And all men
live not by the thought they spend on their own welfare, but because
love exists in man.
"I knew before that God gave life to men and desires that they
should live; now I understood more than that.
"I understood that God does not wish men to live apart, and
therefore he does not reveal to them what each one needs for
himself; but he wishes them to live united, and therefore reveals to
each of them what is necessary for all.
"I have now understood that though it seems to men that they live by
care for themselves, in truth it is love alone by which they live.
He who has love, is in God, and God is in him, for God is love."
And the angel sang praise to God, so that the hut trembled at his
voice. The roof opened, and a column of fire rose from earth to
heaven. Simon and his wife and children fell to the ground. Wings
appeared upon the angel's shoulders, and he rose into the heavens.
And when Simon came to himself the hut stood as before, and there
was no one in it but his own family
Leo Tolstoy
A shoemaker named Simon, who had neither house nor land of his own,
lived with his wife and children in a peasant's hut, and earned his
living by his work. Work was cheap, but bread was dear, and what he
earned he spent for food. The man and his wife had but one
sheepskin coat between them for winter wear, and even that was torn
to tatters, and this was the second year he had been wanting to buy
sheep-skins for a new coat. Before winter Simon saved up a little
money: a three-rouble note lay hidden in his wife's box, and five
roubles and twenty kopeks were owed him by customers in the village.
So one morning he prepared to go to the village to buy the sheep-
skins. He put on over his shirt his wife's wadded nankeen jacket,
and over that he put his own cloth coat. He took the three-rouble
note in his pocket, cut himself a stick to serve as a staff, and
started off after breakfast. "I'll collect the five roubles that
are due to me," thought he, "add the three I have got, and that will
be enough to buy sheep-skins for the winter coat."
He came to the village and called at a peasant's hut, but the man
was not at home. The peasant's wife promised that the money should
be paid next week, but she would not pay it herself. Then Simon
called on another peasant, but this one swore he had no money, and
would only pay twenty kopeks which he owed for a pair of boots Simon
had mended. Simon then tried to buy the sheep-skins on credit, but
the dealer would not trust him.
"Bring your money," said he, "then you may have your pick of the
skins. We know what debt-collecting is like." So all the business
the shoemaker did was to get the twenty kopeks for boots he had
mended, and to take a pair of felt boots a peasant gave him to sole
with leather.
Simon felt downhearted. He spent the twenty kopeks on vodka, and
started homewards without having bought any skins. In the morning
he had felt the frost; but now, after drinking the vodka, he felt
warm, even without a sheep-skin coat. He trudged along, striking
his stick on the frozen earth with one hand, swinging the felt boots
with the other, and talking to himself.
I
"I'm quite warm," said he, "though I have no sheep-skin coat. I've
had a drop, and it runs through all my veins. I need no sheep-
skins. I go along and don't worry about anything. That's the sort
of man I am! What do I care? I can live without sheep-skins. I
don't need them. My wife will fret, to be sure. And, true enough,
it is a shame; one works all day long, and then does not get paid.
Stop a bit! If you don't bring that money along, sure enough I'll
skin you, blessed if I don't. How's that? He pays twenty kopeks at
a time! What can I do with twenty kopeks? Drink it-that's all one
can do! Hard up, he says he is! So he may be--but what about me?
You have a house, and cattle, and everything; I've only what I stand
up in! You have corn of your own growing; I have to buy every grain.
Do what I will, I must spend three roubles every week for bread
alone. I come home and find the bread all used up, and I have to
fork out another rouble and a half. So just pay up what you owe,
and no nonsense about it!"
By this time he had nearly reached the shrine at the bend of the
road. Looking up, he saw something whitish behind the shrine. The
daylight was fading, and the shoemaker peered at the thing without
being able to make out what it was. "There was no white stone here
before. Can it be an ox? It's not like an ox. It has a head like a
man, but it's too white; and what could a man be doing there?"
He came closer, so that it was clearly visible. To his surprise it
really was a man, alive or dead, sitting naked, leaning motionless
against the shrine. Terror seized the shoemaker, and he thought,
"Some one has killed him, stripped him, and left him there. If I
meddle I shall surely get into trouble."
So the shoemaker went on. He passed in front of the shrine so that
he could not see the man. When he had gone some way, he looked
back, and saw that the man was no longer leaning against the shrine,
but was moving as if looking towards him. The shoemaker felt more
frightened than before, and thought, "Shall I go back to him, or
shall I go on? If I go near him something dreadful may happen. Who
knows who the fellow is? He has not come here for any good. If I go
near him he may jump up and throttle me, and there will be no
getting away. Or if not, he'd still be a burden on one's hands.
What could I do with a naked man? I couldn't give him my last
clothes. Heaven only help me to get away!"
So the shoemaker hurried on, leaving the shrine behind him-when
suddenly his conscience smote him, and he stopped in the road.
"What are you doing, Simon?" said he to himself. "The man may be
dying of want, and you slip past afraid. Have you grown so rich as
to be afraid of robbers? Ah, Simon, shame on you!"
So he turned back and went up to the man.
II
Simon approached the stranger, looked at him, and saw that he was a
young man, fit, with no bruises on his body, only evidently freezing
and frightened, and he sat there leaning back without looking up at
Simon, as if too faint to lift his eyes. Simon went close to him,
and then the man seemed to wake up. Turning his head, he opened his
eyes and looked into Simon's face. That one look was enough to make
Simon fond of the man. He threw the felt boots on the ground, undid
his sash, laid it on the boots, and took off his cloth coat.
"It's not a time for talking," said he. "Come, put this coat on at
once!" And Simon took the man by the elbows and helped him to rise.
As he stood there, Simon saw that his body was clean and in good
condition, his hands and feet shapely, and his face good and kind.
He threw his coat over the man's shoulders, but the latter could not
find the sleeves. Simon guided his arms into them, and drawing the
coat well on, wrapped it closely about him, tying the sash round the
man's waist.
Simon even took off his torn cap to put it on the man's head, but
then his own head felt cold, and he thought: "I'm quite bald, while
he has long curly hair." So he put his cap on his own head again.
"It will be better to give him something for his feet," thought he;
and he made the man sit down, and helped him to put on the felt
boots, saying, "There, friend, now move about and warm yourself.
Other matters can be settled later on. Can you walk?"
The man stood up and looked kindly at Simon, but could not say a
word.
"Why don't you speak?" said Simon. "It's too cold to stay here, we
must be getting home. There now, take my stick, and if you're
feeling weak, lean on that. Now step out!"
The man started walking, and moved easily, not lagging behind.
As they went along, Simon asked him, "And where do you belong to?"
"I'm not from these parts."
"I thought as much. I know the folks hereabouts. But, how did you
come to be there by the shrine ?"
"I cannot tell."
"Has some one been ill-treating you?"
"No one has ill-treated me. God has punished me."
"Of course God rules all. Still, you'll have to find food and
shelter somewhere. Where do you want to go to?"
"It is all the same to me."
Simon was amazed. The man did not look like a rogue, and he spoke
gently, but yet he gave no account of himself. Still Simon thought,
"Who knows what may have happened?" And he said to the stranger:
"Well then, come home with me, and at least warm yourself awhile."
So Simon walked towards his home, and the stranger kept up with him,
walking at his side. The wind had risen and Simon felt it cold
under his shirt. He was getting over his tipsiness by now, and
began to feel the frost. He went along sniffling and wrapping his
wife's coat round him, and he thought to himself: "There now--talk
about sheep-skins! I went out for sheep-skins and come home without
even a coat to my back, and what is more, I'm bringing a naked man
along with me. Matryona won't be pleased!" And when he thought of
his wife he felt sad; but when he looked at the stranger and
remembered how he had looked up at him at the shrine, his heart was
glad.
III
Simon's wife had everything ready early that day. She had cut wood,
brought water, fed the children, eaten her own meal, and now she sat
thinking. She wondered when she ought to make bread: now or
tomorrow? There was still a large piece left.
"If Simon has had some dinner in town," thought she, "and does not
eat much for supper, the bread will last out another day."
She weighed the piece of bread in her hand again and again, and
thought: "I won't make any more today. We have only enough flour
left to bake one batch; We can manage to make this last out till
Friday."
So Matryona put away the bread, and sat down at the table to patch
her husband's shirt. While she worked she thought how her husband
was buying skins for a winter coat.
"If only the dealer does not cheat him. My good man is much too
simple; he cheats nobody, but any child can take him in. Eight
roubles is a lot of money--he should get a good coat at that price.
Not tanned skins, but still a proper winter coat. How difficult it
was last winter to get on without a warm coat. I could neither get
down to the river, nor go out anywhere. When he went out he put on
all we had, and there was nothing left for me. He did not start
very early today, but still it's time he was back. I only hope he
has not gone on the spree!"
Hardly had Matryona thought this, when steps were heard on the
threshold, and some one entered. Matryona stuck her needle into her
work and went out into the passage. There she saw two men: Simon,
and with him a man without a hat, and wearing felt boots.
Matryona noticed at once that her husband smelt of spirits. "There
now, he has been drinking," thought she. And when she saw that he
was coatless, had only her jacket on, brought no parcel, stood there
silent, and seemed ashamed, her heart was ready to break with
disappointment. "He has drunk the money," thought she, "and has
been on the spree with some good-for-nothing fellow whom he has
brought home with him."
Matryona let them pass into the hut, followed them in, and saw that
the stranger was a young, slight man, wearing her husband's coat.
There was no shirt to be seen under it, and he had no hat. Having
entered, he stood, neither moving, nor raising his eyes, and
Matryona thought: "He must be a bad man--he's afraid."
Matryona frowned, and stood beside the oven looking to see what they
would do.
Simon took off his cap and sat down on the bench as if things were
all right.
"Come, Matryona; if supper is ready, let us have some."
Matryona muttered something to herself and did not move, but stayed
where she was, by the oven. She looked first at the one and then at
the other of them, and only shook her head. Simon saw that his wife
was annoyed, but tried to pass it off. Pretending not to notice
anything, he took the stranger by the arm.
"Sit down, friend," said he, "and let us have some supper."
The stranger sat down on the bench.
"Haven't you cooked anything for us?" said Simon.
Matryona's anger boiled over. "I've cooked, but not for you. It
seems to me you have drunk your wits away. You went to buy a sheep-
skin coat, but come home without so much as the coat you had on, and
bring a naked vagabond home with you. I have no supper for
drunkards like you."
"That's enough, Matryona. Don't wag your tongue without reason.
You had better ask what sort of man--"
"And you tell me what you've done with the money?"
Simon found the pocket of the jacket, drew out the three-rouble
note, and unfolded it.
"Here is the money. Trifonof did not pay, but promises to pay soon."
Matryona got still more angry; he had bought no sheep-skins, but had
put his only coat on some naked fellow and had even brought him to
their house.
She snatched up the note from the table, took it to put away in
safety, and said: "I have no supper for you. We can't feed all the
naked drunkards in the world."
"There now, Matryona, hold your tongue a bit. First hear what a man
has to say-"
"Much wisdom I shall hear from a drunken fool. I was right in not
wanting to marry you-a drunkard. The linen my mother gave me you
drank; and now you've been to buy a coat-and have drunk it, too!"
Simon tried to explain to his wife that he had only spent twenty
kopeks; tried to tell how he had found the man--but Matryona would
not let him get a word in. She talked nineteen to the dozen, and
dragged in things that had happened ten years before.
Matryona talked and talked, and at last she flew at Simon and seized
him by the sleeve.
"Give me my jacket. It is the only one I have, and you must needs
take it from me and wear it yourself. Give it here, you mangy dog,
and may the devil take you."
Simon began to pull off the jacket, and turned a sleeve of it inside
out; Matryona seized the jacket and it burst its seams, She snatched
it up, threw it over her head and went to the door. She meant to go
out, but stopped undecided--she wanted to work off her anger, but
she also wanted to learn what sort of a man the stranger was.
IV
Matryona stopped and said: "If he were a good man he would not be
naked. Why, he hasn't even a shirt on him. If he were all right,
you would say where you came across the fellow."
"That's just what I am trying to tell you," said Simon. "As I came
to the shrine I saw him sitting all naked and frozen. It isn't
quite the weather to sit about naked! God sent me to him, or he
would have perished. What was I to do? How do we know what may have
happened to him? So I took him, clothed him, and brought him along.
Don't be so angry, Matryona. It is a sin. Remember, we all must
die one day."
Angry words rose to Matryona's lips, but she looked at the stranger
and was silent. He sat on the edge of the bench, motionless, his
hands folded on his knees, his head drooping on his breast, his eyes
closed, and his brows knit as if in pain. Matryona was silent: and
Simon said: "Matryona, have you no love of God?"
Matryona heard these words, and as she looked at the stranger,
suddenly her heart softened towards him. She came back from the
door, and going to the oven she got out the supper. Setting a cup
on the table, she poured out some kvas. Then she brought out the
last piece of bread, and set out a knife and spoons.
"Eat, if you want to," said she.
Simon drew the stranger to the table.
"Take your place, young man," said he.
Simon cut the bread, crumbled it into the broth, and they began to
eat. Matryona sat at the corner of the table resting her head on
her hand and looking at the stranger.
And Matryona was touched with pity for the stranger, and began to
feel fond of him. And at once the stranger's face lit up; his brows
were no longer bent, he raised his eyes and smiled at Matryona.
When they had finished supper, the woman cleared away the things and
began questioning the stranger. "Where are you from?" said she.
"I am not from these parts."
"But how did you come to be on the road?"
"I may not tell."
"Did some one rob you?"
"God punished me."
"And you were lying there naked?"
"Yes, naked and freezing. Simon saw me and had pity on me. He took
off his coat, put it on me and brought me here. And you have fed
me, given me drink, and shown pity on me. God will reward you!"
Matryona rose, took from the window Simon's old shirt she had been
patching, and gave it to the stranger. She also brought out a pair
of trousers for him.
"There," said she, "I see you have no shirt. Put this on, and lie
down where you please, in the loft or on the oven ."
The stranger took off the coat, put on the shirt, and lay down in
the loft. Matryona put out the candle, took the coat, and climbed
to where her husband lay.
Matryona drew the skirts of the coat over her and lay down, but
could not sleep; she could not get the stranger out of her mind.
When she remembered that he had eaten their last piece of bread and
that there was none for tomorrow, and thought of the shirt and
trousers she had given away, she felt grieved; but when she
remembered how he had smiled, her heart was glad.
Long did Matryona lie awake, and she noticed that Simon also was
awake--he drew the coat towards him.
"Simon!"
"Well?"
"You have had the last of the bread, and I have not put any to rise.
I don't know what we shall do tomorrow. Perhaps I can borrow some
of neighbor Martha."
"If we're alive we shall find something to eat."
The woman lay still awhile, and then said, "He seems a good man, but
why does he not tell us who he is?"
"I suppose he has his reasons."
"Simon!"
"Well?"
"We give; but why does nobody give us anything?"
Simon did not know what to say; so he only said, "Let us stop
talking," and turned over and went to sleep.
V
In the morning Simon awoke. The children were still asleep; his
wife had gone to the neighbor's to borrow some bread. The stranger
alone was sitting on the bench, dressed in the old shirt and
trousers, and looking upwards. His face was brighter than it had
been the day before.
Simon said to him, "Well, friend; the belly wants bread, and the naked
body clothes. One has to work for a living What work do you know?"
"I do not know any."
This surprised Simon, but he said, "Men who want to learn can
learn anything."
"Men work, and I will work also."
"What is your name?"
"Michael."
"Well, Michael, if you don't wish to talk about yourself, that is
your own affair; but you'll have to earn a living for yourself. If
you will work as I tell you, I will give you food and shelter."
"May God reward you! I will learn. Show me what to do."
Simon took yarn, put it round his thumb and began to twist it.
"It is easy enough--see!"
Michael watched him, put some yarn round his own thumb in the same
way, caught the knack, and twisted the yarn also.
Then Simon showed him how to wax the thread. This also Michael
mastered. Next Simon showed him how to twist the bristle in, and
how to sew, and this, too, Michael learned at once.
Whatever Simon showed him he understood at once, and after three
days he worked as if he had sewn boots all his life. He worked
without stopping, and ate little. When work was over he sat
silently, looking upwards. He hardly went into the street, spoke
only when necessary, and neither joked nor laughed. They never saw
him smile, except that first evening when Matryona gave them supper.
VI
Day by day and week by week the year went round. Michael lived and
worked with Simon. His fame spread till people said that no one
sewed boots so neatly and strongly as Simon's workman, Michael; and
from all the district round people came to Simon for their boots,
and he began to be well off.
One winter day, as Simon and Michael sat working, a carriage on
sledge-runners, with three horses and with bells, drove up to the
hut. They looked out of the window; the carriage stopped at their
door, a fine servant jumped down from the box and opened the door.
A gentleman in a fur coat got out and walked up to Simon's hut. Up
jumped Matryona and opened the door wide. The gentleman stooped to
enter the hut, and when he drew himself up again his head nearly
reached the ceiling, and he seemed quite to fill his end of the room.
Simon rose, bowed, and looked at the gentleman with astonishment.
He had never seen any one like him. Simon himself was lean, Michael
was thin, and Matryona was dry as a bone, but this man was like some
one from another world: red-faced, burly, with a neck like a bull's,
and looking altogether as if he were cast in iron.
The gentleman puffed, threw off his fur coat, sat down on the bench,
and said, "Which of you is the master bootmaker?"
"I am, your Excellency," said Simon, coming forward.
Then the gentleman shouted to his lad, "Hey, Fedka, bring the leather!"
The servant ran in, bringing a parcel. The gentleman took the
parcel and put it on the table.
"Untie it," said he. The lad untied it.
The gentleman pointed to the leather.
"Look here, shoemaker," said he, "do you see this leather?"
"Yes, your honor."
"But do you know what sort of leather it is?"
Simon felt the leather and said, "It is good leather."
"Good, indeed! Why, you fool, you never saw such leather before in
your life. It's German, and cost twenty roubles."
Simon was frightened, and said, "Where should I ever see leather
like that?"
"Just so! Now, can you make it into boots for me?"
"Yes, your Excellency, I can."
Then the gentleman shouted at him: "You can, can you? Well, remember
whom you are to make them for, and what the leather is. You must
make me boots that will wear for a year, neither losing shape nor
coming unsown. If you can do it, take the leather and cut it up;
but if you can't, say so. I warn you now if your boots become
unsewn or lose shape within a year, I will have you put in prison.
If they don't burst or lose shape for a year I will pay you ten
roubles for your work."
Simon was frightened, and did not know what to say. He glanced at
Michael and nudging him with his elbow, whispered: "Shall I take
the work?"
Michael nodded his head as if to say, "Yes, take it."
Simon did as Michael advised, and undertook to make boots that would
not lose shape or split for a whole year.
Calling his servant, the gentleman told him to pull the boot off his
left leg, which he stretched out.
"Take my measure!" said he.
Simon stitched a paper measure seventeen inches long, smoothed it
out, knelt down, wiped his hand well on his apron so as not to soil
the gentleman's sock, and began to measure. He measured the sole,
and round the instep, and began to measure the calf of the leg, but
the paper was too short. The calf of the leg was as thick as a beam.
"Mind you don't make it too tight in the leg."
Simon stitched on another strip of paper. The gentleman twitched
his toes about in his sock, looking round at those in the hut, and
as he did so he noticed Michael.
"Whom have you there?" asked he.
"That is my workman. He will sew the boots."
"Mind," said the gentleman to Michael, "remember to make them so
that they will last me a year."
Simon also looked at Michael, and saw that Michael was not looking
at the gentleman, but was gazing into the corner behind the
gentleman, as if he saw some one there. Michael looked and looked,
and suddenly he smiled, and his face became brighter.
"What are you grinning at, you fool?" thundered the gentleman.
"You had better look to it that the boots are ready in time."
"They shall be ready in good time," said Michael.
"Mind it is so," said the gentleman, and he put on his boots and his
fur coat, wrapped the latter round him, and went to the door. But
he forgot to stoop, and struck his head against the lintel.
He swore and rubbed his head. Then he took his seat in the carriage
and drove away.
When he had gone, Simon said: "There's a figure of a man for you!
You could not kill him with a mallet. He almost knocked out the
lintel, but little harm it did him."
And Matryona said: "Living as he does, how should he not grow
strong? Death itself can't touch such a rock as that."
VII
Then Simon said to Michael: "Well, we have taken the work, but we
must see we don't get into trouble over it. The leather is dear,
and the gentleman hot-tempered. We must make no mistakes. Come,
your eye is truer and your hands have become nimbler than mine, so
you take this measure and cut out the boots. I will finish off the
sewing of the vamps."
Michael did as he was told. He took the leather, spread it out on
the table, folded it in two, took a knife and began to cut out.
Matryona came and watched him cutting, and was surprised to see how
he was doing it. Matryona was accustomed to seeing boots made, and
she looked and saw that Michael was not cutting the leather for
boots, but was cutting it round.
She wished to say something, but she thought to herself: "Perhaps I
do not understand how gentleman's boots should be made. I suppose
Michael knows more about it--and I won't interfere."
When Michael had cut up the leather, he took a thread and began to
sew not with two ends, as boots are sewn, but with a single end, as
for soft slippers.
Again Matryona wondered, but again she did not interfere. Michael
sewed on steadily till noon. Then Simon rose for dinner, looked
around, and saw that Michael had made slippers out of the
gentleman's leather.
"Ah," groaned Simon, and he thought, "How is it that Michael, who
has been with me a whole year and never made a mistake before,
should do such a dreadful thing? The gentleman ordered high boots,
welted, with whole fronts, and Michael has made soft slippers with
single soles, and has wasted the leather. What am I to say to the
gentleman? I can never replace leather such as this."
And he said to Michael, "What are you doing, friend? You have ruined me!
You know the gentleman ordered high boots, but see what you have made!"
Hardly had he begun to rebuke Michael, when "rat-tat" went the iron
ring that hung at the door. Some one was knocking. They looked out
of the window; a man had come on horseback, and was fastening his
horse. They opened the door, and the servant who had been with the
gentleman came in.
"Good day," said he.
Good day," replied Simon. "What can we do for you?"
"My mistress has sent me about the boots."
"What about the boots?"
"Why, my master no longer needs them. He is dead."
"Is it possible?"
"He did not live to get home after leaving you, but died in the
carriage. When we reached home and the servants came to help him
alight, he rolled over like a sack. He was dead already, and so
stiff that he could hardly be got out of the carriage. My mistress
sent me here, saying: 'Tell the bootmaker that the gentleman who
ordered boots of him and left the leather for them no longer needs
the boots, but that he must quickly make soft slippers for the
corpse. Wait till they are ready, and bring them back with you.'
That is why I have come."
Michael gathered up the remnants of the leather; rolled them up,
took the soft slippers he had made, slapped them together, wiped
them down with his apron, and handed them and the roll of leather to
the servant, who took them and said: "Good-bye, masters, and good
day to you!"
VIII
Another year passed, and another, and Michael was now living his
sixth year with Simon. He lived as before. He went nowhere, only
spoke when necessary, and had only smiled twice in all those years--
once when Matryona gave him food, and a second time when the
gentleman was in their hut. Simon was more than pleased with his
workman. He never now asked him where he came from, and only feared
lest Michael should go away.
They were all at home one day. Matryona was putting iron pots in
the oven; the children were running along the benches and looking
out of the window; Simon was sewing at one window, and Michael was
fastening on a heel at the other.
One of the boys ran along the bench to Michael, leant on his
shoulder, and looked out of the window.
"Look, Uncle Michael! There is a lady with little girls! She seems
to be coming here. And one of the girls is lame."
When the boy said that, Michael dropped his work, turned to the
window, and looked out into the street.
Simon was surprised. Michael never used to look out into the
street, but now he pressed against the window, staring at something.
Simon also looked out, and saw that a well-dressed woman was really
coming to his hut, leading by the hand two little girls in fur coats
and woolen shawls. The girls could hardly be told one from the
other, except that one of them was crippled in her left leg and
walked with a limp.
The woman stepped into the porch and entered the passage. Feeling
about for the entrance she found the latch, which she lifted, and
opened the door. She let the two girls go in first, and followed
them into the hut.
"Good day, good folk!"
"Pray come in," said Simon. "What can we do for you?"
The woman sat down by the table. The two little girls pressed close
to her knees, afraid of the people in the hut.
"I want leather shoes made for these two little girls for spring."
"We can do that. We never have made such small shoes, but we can
make them; either welted or turnover shoes, linen lined. My man,
Michael, is a master at the work."
Simon glanced at Michael and saw that he had left his work and was
sitting with his eyes fixed on the little girls. Simon was
surprised. It was true the girls were pretty, with black eyes,
plump, and rosy-cheeked, and they wore nice kerchiefs and fur coats,
but still Simon could not understand why Michael should look at them
like that--just as if he had known them before. He was puzzled,
but went on talking with the woman, and arranging the price. Having
fixed it, he prepared the measure. The woman lifted the lame girl
on to her lap and said: "Take two measures from this little girl.
Make one shoe for the lame foot and three for the sound one. They
both have the same size feet. They are twins."
Simon took the measure and, speaking of the lame girl, said: "How
did it happen to her? She is such a pretty girl. Was she born so?"
"No, her mother crushed her leg."
Then Matryona joined in. She wondered who this woman was, and whose
the children were, so she said: "Are not you their mother then?"
"No, my good woman; I am neither their mother nor any relation to
them. They were quite strangers to me, but I adopted them."
"They are not your children and yet you are so fond of them?"
"How can I help being fond of them? I fed them both at my own
breasts. I had a child of my own, but God took him. I was not so
fond of him as I now am of them."
"Then whose children are they?"
IX
The woman, having begun talking, told them the whole story.
"It is about six years since their parents died, both in one week:
their father was buried on the Tuesday, and their mother died on the
Friday. These orphans were born three days after their father's
death, and their mother did not live another day. My husband and I
were then living as peasants in the village. We were neighbors of
theirs, our yard being next to theirs. Their father was a lonely
man; a wood-cutter in the forest. When felling trees one day, they
let one fall on him. It fell across his body and crushed his bowels
out. They hardly got him home before his soul went to God; and that
same week his wife gave birth to twins--these little girls. She
was poor and alone; she had no one, young or old, with her. Alone
she gave them birth, and alone she met her death."
"The next morning I went to see her, but when I entered the hut,
she, poor thing, was already stark and cold. In dying she had
rolled on to this child and crushed her leg. The village folk came
to the hut, washed the body, laid her out, made a coffin, and buried
her. They were good folk. The babies were left alone. What was to
be done with them? I was the only woman there who had a baby at the
time. I was nursing my first-born--eight weeks old. So I took
them for a time. The peasants came together, and thought and
thought what to do with them; and at last they said to me: "For the
present, Mary, you had better keep the girls, and later on we will
arrange what to do for them." So I nursed the sound one at my
breast, but at first I did not feed this crippled one. I did not
suppose she would live. But then I thought to myself, why should
the poor innocent suffer? I pitied her, and began to feed her. And
so I fed my own boy and these two--the three of them--at my own
breast. I was young and strong, and had good food, and God gave me
so much milk that at times it even overflowed. I used sometimes to
feed two at a time, while the third was waiting. When one had
enough I nursed the third. And God so ordered it that these grew
up, while my own was buried before he was two years old. And I had
no more children, though we prospered. Now my husband is working
for the corn merchant at the mill. The pay is good, and we are well
off. But I have no children of my own, and how lonely I should be
without these little girls! How can I help loving them! They are the
joy of my life!"
She pressed the lame little girl to her with one hand, while with
the other she wiped the tears from her cheeks.
And Matryona sighed, and said: "The proverb is true that says, 'One
may live without father or mother, but one cannot live without God.'"
So they talked together, when suddenly the whole hut was lighted up
as though by summer lightning from the corner where Michael sat.
They all looked towards him and saw him sitting, his hands folded on
his knees, gazing upwards and smiling.
X
The woman went away with the girls. Michael rose from the bench,
put down his work, and took off his apron. Then, bowing low to
Simon and his wife, he said: "Farewell, masters. God has forgiven
me. I ask your forgiveness, too, for anything done amiss."
And they saw that a light shone from Michael. And Simon rose, bowed
down to Michael, and said: "I see, Michael, that you are no common
man, and I can neither keep you nor question you. Only tell me
this: how is it that when I found you and brought you home, you were
gloomy, and when my wife gave you food you smiled at her and became
brighter? Then when the gentleman came to order the boots, you
smiled again and became brighter still? And now, when this woman
brought the little girls, you smiled a third time, and have become
as bright as day? Tell me, Michael, why does your face shine so, and
why did you smile those three times?"
And Michael answered: "Light shines from me because I have been
punished, but now God has pardoned me. And I smiled three times,
because God sent me to learn three truths, and I have learnt them.
One I learnt when your wife pitied me, and that is why I smiled the
first time. The second I learnt when the rich man ordered the boots,
and then I smiled again. And now, when I saw those little girls,
I learn the third and last truth, and I smiled the third time."
And Simon said, "Tell me, Michael, what did God punish you for? and
what were the three truths? that I, too, may know them."
And Michael answered: "God punished me for disobeying Him. I was an
angel in heaven and disobeyed God. God sent me to fetch a woman's
soul. I flew to earth, and saw a sick woman lying alone, who had
just given birth to twin girls. They moved feebly at their mother's
side, but she could not lift them to her breast. When she saw me,
she understood that God had sent me for her soul, and she wept and
said: 'Angel of God! My husband has just been buried, killed by a
falling tree. I have neither sister, nor aunt, nor mother: no one
to care for my orphans. Do not take my soul! Let me nurse my babes,
feed them, and set them on their feet before I die. Children cannot
live without father or mother.' And I hearkened to her. I placed
one child at her breast and gave the other into her arms, and
returned to the Lord in heaven. I flew to the Lord, and said: 'I
could not take the soul of the mother. Her husband was killed by a
tree; the woman has twins, and prays that her soul may not be taken.
She says: "Let me nurse and feed my children, and set them on their
feet. Children cannot live without father or mother." I have not
taken her soul.' And God said: 'Go-take the mother's soul, and learn
three truths: Learn What dwells in man, What is not given to man,
and What men live by. When thou has learnt these things, thou shalt
return to heaven.' So I flew again to earth and took the mother's
soul. The babes dropped from her breasts. Her body rolled over on
the bed and crushed one babe, twisting its leg. I rose above the
village, wishing to take her soul to God; but a wind seized me, and
my wings drooped and dropped off. Her soul rose alone to God, while
I fell to earth by the roadside."
XI
And Simon and Matryona understood who it was that had lived with
them, and whom they had clothed and fed. And they wept with awe and
with joy. And the angel said: "I was alone in the field, naked. I
had never known human needs, cold and hunger, till I became a man.
I was famished, frozen, and did not know what to do. I saw, near
the field I was in, a shrine built for God, and I went to it hoping
to find shelter. But the shrine was locked, and I could not enter.
So I sat down behind the shrine to shelter myself at least from the
wind. Evening drew on. I was hungry, frozen, and in pain.
Suddenly I heard a man coming along the road. He carried a pair of
boots, and was talking to himself. For the first time since I
became a man I saw the mortal face of a man, and his face seemed
terrible to me and I turned from it. And I heard the man talking to
himself of how to cover his body from the cold in winter, and how to
feed wife and children. And I thought: "I am perishing of cold and
hunger, and here is a man thinking only of how to clothe himself and
his wife, and how to get bread for themselves. He cannot help me.
When the man saw me he frowned and became still more terrible, and
passed me by on the other side. I despaired; but suddenly I heard
him coming back. I looked up, and did not recognize the same man;
before, I had seen death in his face; but now he was alive, and I
recognized in him the presence of God. He came up to me, clothed
me, took me with him, and brought me to his home. I entered the
house; a woman came to meet us and began to speak. The woman was
still more terrible than the man had been; the spirit of death came
from her mouth; I could not breathe for the stench of death that
spread around her. She wished to drive me out into the cold, and I
knew that if she did so she would die. Suddenly her husband spoke
to her of God, and the woman changed at once. And when she brought
me food and looked at me, I glanced at her and saw that death no
longer dwelt in her; she had become alive, and in her, too, I saw God.
"Then I remembered the first lesson God had set me: 'Learn what
dwells in man.' And I understood that in man dwells Love! I was glad
that God had already begun to show me what He had promised, and I
smiled for the first time. But I had not yet learnt all. I did not
yet know What is not given to man, and What men live by.
"I lived with you, and a year passed. A man came to order boots
that should wear for a year without losing shape or cracking. I
looked at him, and suddenly, behind his shoulder, I saw my comrade--
the angel of death. None but me saw that angel; but I knew him, and
knew that before the sun set he would take that rich man's soul.
And I thought to myself, 'The man is making preparations for a year,
and does not know that he will die before evening.' And I remembered
God's second saying, 'Learn what is not given to man.'
"What dwells in man I already knew. Now I learnt what is not given
him. It is not given to man to know his own needs. And I smiled
for the second time. I was glad to have seen my comrade angel--
glad also that God had revealed to me the second saying.
"But I still did not know all. I did not know What men live by.
And I lived on, waiting till God should reveal to me the last
lesson. In the sixth year came the girl-twins with the woman; and I
recognized the girls, and heard how they had been kept alive.
Having heard the story, I thought, 'Their mother besought me for the
children's sake, and I believed her when she said that children
cannot live without father or mother; but a stranger has nursed
them, and has brought them up.' And when the woman showed her love
for the children that were not her own, and wept over them, I saw in
her the living God and understood What men live by. And I knew that
God had revealed to me the last lesson, and had forgiven my sin.
And then I smiled for the third time."
XII
And the angel's body was bared, and he was clothed in light so that
eye could not look on him; and his voice grew louder, as though it
came not from him but from heaven above. And the angel said:
"I have learnt that all men live not by care for themselves but by love.
"It was not given to the mother to know what her children needed for
their life. Nor was it given to the rich man to know what he himself
needed. Nor is it given to any man to know whether, when evening
comes, he will need boots for his body or slippers for his corpse.
"I remained alive when I was a man, not by care of myself, but
because love was present in a passer-by, and because he and his wife
pitied and loved me. The orphans remained alive not because of
their mother's care, but because there was love in the heart of a
woman, a stranger to them, who pitied and loved them. And all men
live not by the thought they spend on their own welfare, but because
love exists in man.
"I knew before that God gave life to men and desires that they
should live; now I understood more than that.
"I understood that God does not wish men to live apart, and
therefore he does not reveal to them what each one needs for
himself; but he wishes them to live united, and therefore reveals to
each of them what is necessary for all.
"I have now understood that though it seems to men that they live by
care for themselves, in truth it is love alone by which they live.
He who has love, is in God, and God is in him, for God is love."
And the angel sang praise to God, so that the hut trembled at his
voice. The roof opened, and a column of fire rose from earth to
heaven. Simon and his wife and children fell to the ground. Wings
appeared upon the angel's shoulders, and he rose into the heavens.
And when Simon came to himself the hut stood as before, and there
was no one in it but his own family
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